INTRODUCTION

AVANTIKA SINGH
TO
MEMBRANE
MBBS 2017-18
Roll no. 30
POTENTIAL.
What is Membrane Potential?
• Membrane potential is a property of all cells
and reflects a difference in charge on either
side of the cell membrane.
Vm= Vin -Vout
Many ions have a concentration gradient
across the membrane including
potassium (K+), which is at a high
concentration inside and a low concentration
outside the membrane. Sodium (Na+)
and chloride (Cl−) ions are at high
concentrations in the extracellular region, and
low concentrations in the intracellular regions.
Chemical Make Up of Body Fluid.
Substance Interstitial Fluid Intracellular fluid
Concentration Concentration

Na+ 142mEq/liter 10 mEq/liter

K+ 4 140

Ca2+ 2.4 0.0001

Mg2+ 1.2 58.0
Cl- 103 4
HCO3- 28 10
Phosphate ion 28 10
Glucose 90-100 mg% 0-20 mg%
Amino acids 4 75
Proteins 20k 160k
pH 7.4 7.0
DEVELOPMENT OF MEMBRANE POTENTIAL.

• Membrane has high concentration of K+ and

negatively charged organic anions on inside the cell.
• High concentration of Na+ and Cl- on the outside
the cell.
• K+ ions tends to diffuse from inside to outside the
cell down their chemical concentration gradient.
• Cl- ions do not have any role in membrane potential.
Measurement of Membrane Potential.
• The electrode in the glass micropipette as well as the
reference (i.e., bath) electrode are silver/silver
chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes, which allow for
electrical continuity between the electrolyte
solutions (inside the glass micropipette and bathing
solution of the cell).
THANK YOU
HAVE A NICE DAY .
NERNST
POTENTIAL

BY: Avishkar Tripathi.

Roll no. 31
MBBS (2017-2018)
 INTRODUCTION
In a biological membrane, the
equilibrium potential (also known as
the Nernst potential) of an ion is the
membrane potential at which it does
not diffuse through the membrane in
either direction.
Factors determining
Nernst Potential
• The magnitude of potential is determined
by the RATIO of concentration of the
specific ion on the two sides of the
membrane.
 Significance of Nernst equation

• The greater this ratio , the greater is

the Nernst Potential required to
prevent additional net diffusion.
How to calculate Nernst
potential ?
NERNST EQUATION
• It is named after the
German physical
chemist who first
formulated it, Walther
Nernst
 WHAT IS NERNST EQUATION ?
The Nernst equation has a physiological application
when used to calculate the potential of an ion of charge
z across a membrane. This potential is determined using
the concentration of the ion both inside and outside the
cell:

• E is the membrane potential (in volts, equivalent to joules

per coulomb)
• R is the ideal gas constant (joules per kelvin per mole)
• Z is the charge on ion.
• T is the temperature in kelvins
• F is Faraday's constant (coulombs per mole)
• While using this formula it is assumed that the .

potential in the extracellular fluid outside the

membrane remains at zero potential , and the
Nernst equation is the potential inside the
membrane.
 .

• The sign of the potential is positive (+) if the ion

diffusion from inside to outside is negative ion ,
and it is negative (-) if the ion is positive.
NERNST POTENTIAL OF POTASSIUM
THANK YOU
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

By
Arkaprabha Jana
Roll no ;28
CONTENT

• Introduction
• Genesis of RMP
• Recording of RMP
INTRODUCTION
• Definition:
• The voltage difference acrosses cell
plasma membrane in the resting state .
• it is also simply referred to as resting
potential.
• 2)- Permeability of the membrane to Na+ :

At the rest, ECF Na+ more than ICF

Na+, therefore there is a concentration gradient
for Na+ from outside to inside for which Na+
diffuses into the cell. However at rest membrane
is less permeable to Na+ than K+. Therefore K+
exit is not balanced by Na+ entry. Hence interior
of the cell remains relatively negative.
GENESIS OF RMP
1)- Permeability of the membrane to k+:
• Normally k ions is more inside and less
outside the cell. therefore a concentration
gradient exists for k ions from inside to
outside that facilitates k ion to diffuse out of
the cell.
• At rest, permeability of the membrane to k
ion is higher than any other ions. For this
easily diffuses at creates negatively inside
the cell.
Genesis of RMP
• 3)-Role of Na+-K+ pump:

• Na k pump also contributes to genesis of

RMP, as it is an electrogenic pump.
• It pumps out three Na+ for two K+ to come
in.
• therefore,it pumps more cations out of the
cell and less into the cell. Thus relatively
negativity is created inside.
RECORDING OF MEMBERANE POTENTIAL

• The membrane potential is recorded like

recording of activity of any excitable tissue. this
requires,-

• 1) microelectrodes
• 2)electronic amplifiers
• 3)catode ray oscilloscope
• Basic principle:

two micro-electrodes are placed on

the surface of a nerve fibre and connected to
CRO.when one of the microelectrode is inserted
inside the nerve fiber,a steady potential
difference e of -70mv is observed on the CRO.
This is the recording of membrane potential and
indicates the resting sate of the neuron. This can
be recorded from any cell in the body in the state
of polarization.
• Thank you
SECONDARY
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT.
ANUPRIYA TYAGI
27
MBBS 2017-18
DO YOU THINK AN EXTERNAL
SOURCE OF ENERGY IS ALWAYS
DIRECTLY NEEDED TO DRIVE
ACTIVE TRANSPORT?
NO.
 In some cases, it is possible
to couple the transport of
two different molecules
across a membrane so that
their energetic effects cancel
one another out.
Secondary Active Transport is a form of active transport
across a biological membrane in which a transporter
protein couples the movement of an ion down its conc
gradient to the uphill movement of another molecule
against its conc gradient.
 TYPES OF SECONDARY ACTIVE
TRANSPORT-
• SYMPORT • ANTIPORT
THE MOLECULES
ARE TRANSPORTED
ACROSS THE CELL
MEMBRANE AT THE
SAME TIME,
THEREFORE, IT IS A
CO TRANSPORTER
AND KNOWN AS
SYMPORT.
SGLT(sodium glucose linked transporter)

•Found in
intestinal
mucosa of SI
and PCT of
nephron.
•Function-
glucose
reabsorption.
 Na+/K+ ATPase
uses ATP

brings 2 K+ inwards
moves 3 Na+ outwards
creating downhill Na+ gradient

SGLT proteins use energy(from downhill gradient)

To transport glucose against an uphill gradient.
THE MOLECULES
ARE TRANSPORTED
ACROSS THE
CELL MEMBRANE
IN OPPOSITE
DIRECTIONS,
AT THE SAME TIME,
THEREFORE, IT IS A
COUNTER
TRANSPORTER AND
KNOWN AS
ANTIPORT.
 Sodium- Calcium Exchanger.
• usually found in the
plasma membranes,
mitochondria
and ER of excitable
cells.
• removes Ca2 from
cells.
• one of the most
important cellular
mechanisms for
removing Ca2+

• Functions-
neurosecretion,
cardiac muscle
relaxation.
THANK YOU!
PRIMARY ACTIVE
TRANSPORT

ANMOL ATHWANI
ROLL NO-26
 CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
• MECHANISM
• FUNCTIONS
• INHIBITION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT UTILIZES

ENERGY IN FORM OF ATP TO
TRANSPORT MOLECULES ACROSS THE
MEMBRANE AGAINST THEIR
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT .
Primary active transport consist of:

• Calcium Pump (Ca2+)

• Potassium Hydrogen Pump (K+ - H+)
• Sodium Potassium Pump (Na+ - K+)
MECHANISM
 Sodium Potassium Pump
Step-1

Binding of 3Na+ and ATP

to carrier protein inside cell

Transfers High energy phosphate group

from ATP to ASPARTIC ACID residue,
causing change in shape of protein

3Na+ move out of the cell!

 Step -2

2K+ binds to carrier protein

ASPARTIC ACID PHOSPHATE

bond is hydrolysed causing
second change in Protein

2K+ move into the

cell!
 function

• THIS PUMP WORKS NON STOP AND IS

RESPONSIBLE FOR MAINTAINING THE HIGH K+
AND LOW Na+ CONCENTRATION IN THE CELL……
• THE ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL IS THE BASIC
REQUIREMENT IN NERVE AND MUSCLE FIBRE
FOR TRNSMITTING ELECTRICAL SIGNALS
• HELPS IN REGULATION OF NORMAL CELL
VOLUME AND PRESSURE ……
 Inhibition of sodium -
potassium PUMP

• WHEN TEMPRATURE IS
REDUCED
• DURING LACK OF OXYGEN
• LOW CONCENTRATION OF Na+
OR K+ AND ATP
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS REFFERED
• GUYTON , Arthur C-HALL, John E-Hall
SECOND SOUTH ASIAN EDITION
• DEVLYN BIOCHEMISTRY 4th EDITION

SITES REFFERED
• www.wikilectures.eu
• https://en.m.wikipedia.org
THANK YOU !!
PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Name:-Ankit Saini
Roll No:-25
MBBS Batch (2017-2018)
MIMS
 Weeee!!!
• Passive Transport
CELL DOSEN’T USE THE ENERGY
1. Diffusion high
2. Facilitated Diffusion
3. Osmosis low
• Diffusion is the movement of small particles across a
selectively permeable membrane like the cell membrane
until equilibrium is reached.

These particles move from an area of high concentration

to an area of low concentration.

outside of cell

inside of cell
 DIFFUSION

HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION

• Facilitated Diffusion is the movement of larger
molecules like glucose through the cell membrane –
larger molecules must be “helped”
Proteins in the cell membrane form channels for large
molecules to pass through
Proteins that form channels (pores) are called protein
channels
Glucose molecules
outside of cell

inside of cell
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively
permeable membrane like the cell membrane

Water diffuses across a membrane from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration.

Semi-
permeable
membrane is
permeable to
water, but not
to sugar
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Review of medical physiology(20th edition)
- William F.Ganong.
Textbook of medical physiology
- John E.Hall
Fundamentals of medical physiology(6th edition)
- L Prakasam Reddy.
THANK YOU
• BIOELECTRIC POTENTIALS

Resting Membrane Potential

(RMP)
&
Action potential
(AP)
RESTING POTENTIAL

When the membrane potential of a cell can go for a

long period of time without changing significantly, it
is referred to as a resting potential or resting voltage.

This term is used for the membrane potential of non-

excitable cells, but also for the membrane potential
of excitable cells in the absence of excitation.
• Resting membrane potential is the electrical
potential difference across the cell membrane in
resting condition.

• It is also called as membrane potential,

=transmembrane potential,=transmembrane
potential difference or= transmembrane potential
gradient.
.The condition of the muscle during resting
membrane potential is called as polarized state. .

• Recording of biopotential has become possible

with invention of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO).
RMP in different tissues
• Neuron : -70 mV
• Skeletal muscle fibre : -90 mV
• Cardiac muscle fibre : -85 mV to -95 mV
• Smooth muscle fibre : -50 mV to – 95 mV
• Erythrocytes : -12 mV
Ionic basis of resting membrane potential

• Occurs due to ionic imbalance across the cell

membrane i.e. more positivity outside and more
negativity inside the cell.

• Ionic imbalance is produced by two factors:

1.Sodium potassium pump
2.Selective permeability of cell membrane.
Membrane potentials in cells are determined
primarily by three factors:--

1) the concentration of ions on the inside and

outside of the cell;

2) the permeability of the cell membrane to those

ions (i.e., ion conductance) through specific
ion channels; and

3) by the activity of electrogenic pumps (e.g., Na+/K+

-ATPase and Ca++ transport pumps) that maintain the
ion concentrations across the membrane.
• Cell membranes are typically permeable to only
a subset of ions.

• These usually include potassium ions, chloride

ions, bicarbonate ions, and others.

• Trans-plasma-membrane potentials are almost

always determined primarily by potassium
permeability.
These concentration gradients provide the potential energy to
drive the formation of the membrane potential.
This voltage is established when the membrane has
permeability to one or more ions.
In the simplest case, if the membrane is selectively permeable
to potassium, these positively charged ions can diffuse down
the concentration gradient to the outside of the cell, leaving
behind uncompensated negative charges. This separation of
charges is what causes the membrane potential. Note that the
system as a whole is electro-neutral. The uncompensated
positive charges outside the cell, and the uncompensated
negative charges inside the cell, physically line up on the
membrane surface and attract each other across the lipid
bilayer. Thus, the membrane potential is physically located
only in the immediate vicinity of the membrane. It is the
separation of these charges across the membrane that is the
basis of the membrane voltage.
The reversal potential (or equilibrium potential)

of an ion is the value of transmembrane voltage at

which diffusive and electrical forces counterbalance, so
that there is no net ion flow across the membrane.

This means that the transmembrane voltage exactly

opposes the force of diffusion of the ion, such that the
net current of the ion across the membrane is zero and
unchanging.
The reversal potential is important because it gives
the voltage that acts on channels permeable to that
ion—in other words, it gives the voltage that the ion
concentration gradient generates when it acts as a
battery.

The equilibrium potential of a particular ion is usually

designated by the notation Eion.

The equilibrium potential for any ion can be

calculated using the Nernst equation.
A diagram showing the progression in the development of a
membrane potential from a concentration gradient (for
potassium).
Green arrows indicate net movement of K+ down a
concentration gradient.
Red arrows indicate net movement of K+ due to the
membrane potential.
The diagram is misleading in that while the concentration of
potassium ions outside of the cell increases, only a small
amount of K+ needs to cross the membrane in order to
produce a membrane potential with a magnitude large
enough to counter the tendency of the potassium ions to
move down the concentration gradient.
In panel 2 of the diagram, the cell membrane has been made permeable to
potassium ions, but not the anions (An−) inside the cell. These anions are mostly
contributed by protein. There is energy stored in the potassium ion concentration
gradient that can be converted into an electrical gradient when potassium (K +) ions
move out of the cell. Note that potassium ions can move across the membrane in
both directions but by the purely statistical process that arises from the higher
concentration of potassium ions inside the cell, there will be more potassium ions
moving out of the cell. Because there is a higher concentration of potassium ions
inside the cells, their random molecular motion is more likely to encounter the
permeability pore (ion channel) than is the case for the potassium ions that are
outside and at a lower concentration. An internal K+ is simply "more likely" to leave
the cell than an extracellular K+ is to enter it. It is a matter of simple diffusion doing
work by dissipating the concentration gradient. As potassium leaves the cell, it is
leaving behind the anions. Therefore, a charge separation is developing as K + leaves
the cell. This charge separation creates a transmembrane voltage. This
transmembrane voltage is the membrane potential. As potassium continues to leave
the cell, separating more charges, the membrane potential will continue to grow. The
length of the arrows (green indicating concentration gradient, red indicating voltage),
represents the magnitude of potassium ion movement due to each form of energy.
The direction of the arrow indicates the direction in which that particular force is
applied. Thus, the building membrane voltage is an increasing force that acts counter
to the tendency for net movement of potassium ions down the potassium
concentration gradient.
In Panel 3, the membrane voltage has grown to the
extent that its "strength" now matches the
concentration gradient's. Since these forces (which
are applied to K+) are now the same strength and
oriented in opposite directions, the system is now in
equilibrium.
Put another way, the tendency of potassium to leave
the cell by running down its concentration gradient is
now matched by the tendency of the membrane
voltage to pull potassium ions back into the cell.
K+ continues to move across the membrane, but the
rate at which it enters and leaves the cell are the
same, thus, there is no netpotassium current.
Because the K+ is at equilibrium, membrane potential
is stable, or "resting" (EK).
EQUILIBRIUM POTENTIALS

For most animal cells potassium ions (K+) are the most
important for the resting potential.
Due to the active transport of potassium ions, the concentration
of potassium is higher inside cells than outside.
Most cells have potassium-selective ion channel proteins that
remain open all the time.
There will be net movement of positively charged potassium
ions through these potassium channels with a resulting
accumulation of excess negative charge inside of the cell. The
outward movement of positively charged potassium ions is due
to random molecular motion (diffusion) and continues until
enough excess negative charge accumulates inside the cell to
form a membrane potential which can balance the difference in
concentration of potassium between inside and outside the cell.
 "Balance" means that the electrical force (potential)
that results from the build-up of ionic charge, and
which impedes outward diffusion, increases until it
is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to
the tendency for outward diffusive movement of
potassium.
This balance point is an equilibrium potential as the
net transmembrane flux (or current) of K+ is zero.
A good approximation for the equilibrium potential
of a given ion only needs the concentrations on
either side of the membrane and the temperature.
It can be calculated using the Nernst equation:
Equilibrium Potentials for Various Ions.
If the concentration gradient for a given ion is
known, the equilibrium potentialfor that ion can be
calculated (using the Nernst Equation). ...

Notice that the equilibrium potential for Cl- is near

the resting membrane potential of the cell.
 Sodium Potassium Pump
• Sodium and potassium ions are actively transported in
oppposite directions across the cell membrane.
• Three sodium ions move out of the cell and two
potassium ions move inside the cell by using energy.
• Since more positive ions are pumped outside than inside
a net deficit of positive ions occur inside the cell.
• In resting condition,anions are more in intracellular fluid
and cations are more in extracellular fluid.
• Exit of anion from the cell into ECF produces
depolarization of the cell.
• Entrance of anion into the cell from ECF causes
hyperpolarization of the cell.
Selective permeability of cell membrane

• Depends largely on the transport channels.

• Gated channels.

• Two types of channels are involved:

1. Channels for major anions like proteins.
2. Leak channels.
Channels for major anions
• Absent or closed.
• Substances remain inside the cell.
• Play major role in the development and
maintenance of negativity inside the cell.
Leak channels
• Passive channels.
• Maintain the resting membrane potential by
allowing movement of positive ions across cell
membrane.
• Sodium and chloride are more outside and
potassium is more inside.
• Sodium is actively transported out of cell and
potassium is actively transported into the cell.
• Sodium diffuses back into the cell through
sodium leak channels and potassium diffuses out
of the cell through potassium leak
channels,because of conc. gradient.
ACTION
POTENTIAL
 CONTENTS
• DEFINITION
• PHASES
• IONIC BASIS OF ACTION POTENTIAL
• PROPERTIES OF ACTION POTENTIAL
• GRADED POTENTIAL
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GRADED AND
ACTION POTENTIAL
 DEFINITION
• Action potential is defined as series of
changes that occur in membrane potential
which spreads along surface of fiber when
muscle and nerve is stimulated.
 PHASES
It has five phases:

1. Latent period

2. Depolarisation– slow phase& rapid phase

3. Repolarisation

4. After depolarization

5. After hyperpolarization
 1. LATENT PERIOD
• It is the time period between stimulus given & start
of response.
• Duration- 0.5 to 1 msec

 Stimulus Artifact-

When stimulus is applied, there is slight irregular

deflection of baseline for a very short period,
known as stimulus artifact.
 2. DEPOLARISATION
• It is the initial phase of action potential.
• In this phase, inside of membrane potential
changes from negative towards zero potential,
making the inside of membrane positively charged
in response to given stimulus.

It starts after the latent period. Initially, it is very

slow and the muscle is depolarised for about 15mV,
(from -70mv to +35mv in nerve)
 Firing Level-

The point at which depolarisation

increases suddenly is known as firing
level.
  SPIKE POTENTIAL

• Rapid rise in depolarisation and Rapid fall

in repolarisation is known as spike
potential.
• It lasts for 0.4 sec.
 3. REPOLARISATION

• It starts after depolarisation.

• Initially it is rapid but further on it becomes slow.

• In this phase, membrane potential rapidly falls

from positive towards negative level.
 4. AFTER DEPOLARISATION

• When repolarization is 70% complete,

there is slower fall of membrane potential.
 5. AFTER HYPERPOLARISATION

• After reaching the RMP(-90mV), the

membrane potential becomes more
negative.
TYPES OF ACTION POTENTIAL
In animal cells, there are two primary types of action
potentials.
One type is generated by voltage-gated sodium
channels, the other by voltage gatedcalcium channels.

Sodium-based action potentials usually last for under

one millisecond, whereas calcium-based action
potentials may last for 100 milliseconds or longer.

In some types of neurons, slow calcium spikes provide

the driving force for a long burst of rapidly emitted
sodium spikes. In cardiac muscle cells, on the other
hand, an initial fast sodium spike provides a "primer"
to provoke the rapid onset of a calcium spike, which
then produces muscle contraction
Types of Action Potential: Monophasic and Biphasic
Type # 2. Biphasic Action Potential:
i. It can be recorded by placing both the recording
electrodes either in the ECF or ICF.
ii. In the Y axis when there is no stimulation of the
nerve fiber, there is no potential difference between
the two recording electrodes and hence the
horizontal line recorded is known as isopotential
line.
iii. The recording will have two peaks and one will
be the mirror image of the other.
iv. The isopotential duration between the mirror
images will depend on the distance between the
two recording electrodes and is directly related.
v. The ionic basis of the potential recorded will be
same as far monophasic action potential.
IONIC BASIS OF ACTION POTENTIAL
The Na+/K+-ATPase helps maintain
● RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL,
● EFFECT TRANSPORT, AND
● REGULATE CELLULAR VOLUME.

It also functions as a signal transducer/integrator to

regulate MAPK pathway, ROS, as well as intracellular
calcium. In most animal cells, the Na+/K+-ATPase
is responsible for about 1/5 of the cell's energy
expenditure.

For neurons, the Na+/K+-ATPase can be responsible

for up to 2/3 of the cell's energy expenditure.
Controlling cell volume

Failure of the Na+-K+ pumps can result in

swelling of the cell.
A cell's osmolarity is the sum of the concentrations of
the various ion species and many proteins and other
organic compounds inside the cell.
When this is higher than the osmolarity outside of the
cell, water flows into the cell through osmosis. This
can cause the cell to swell up and lyse. The Na+
-K+pump helps to maintain the right concentrations of
ions.
Furthermore, when the cell begins to swell, this
automatically activates the Na+-K+ pump.
 PROPERTIES OF ACTION POTENTIAL

• Propagative in nature
• Long distance signals
• Both depolarisation and repolarisation occur.
• Follows all or none law.
• Summation is possible (graded potential).
• Has refractory period.
 SUMMATION
Signal summation occurs when impulses add
together to reach the threshold of excitation to fire
a neuron.(graded potential)

1)TEMPORAL SUMMATION
--the effect when impulses received at the same plac
e on the neuron add up
.

2)SPATIAL SUMMATION
—the effect when simultaneous impulses received
at different places on the neuron add up to fire the
neuron.
Summation, either spatial or temporal, is the
addition of these impulses at the axon hillock .

Together, synaptic summation and the threshold

for excitation act as a filter so that random "noise"
in the system is not transmitted as important
information.
(A single neuron can receive both excitatory and
inhibitory inputs from multiple neurons.
All these inputs are added together at the axon hillock.
If the EPSPs are strong enough to overcome the IPSPs and
reach the threshold of excitation, the neuron will fire.)
 GRADED POTENTIAL
• It is the change in membrane potential that is
confined to relatively small region of the membrane
and its magnitude is variable.
• It is the mild local change in membrane potential
which develops in receptors, synapse or
neuromuscular junction when stimulated.
• It is responsible for generation of action potential.
• eg.- End plate potential, Receptor potential, EPSP,
IPSP.
 Graded potentials Action potentials

Action potentials always lead to depolarization

Depending on the stimulus, graded potentials of membrane and reversal of the membrane
can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing. potential.

Amplitude is all-or-none; strength of the

Amplitude is proportional to the strength of the stimulus is coded in the frequency of all-or-none
stimulus. action potentials generated.

Amplitude is generally small (a few mV to tens

of mV). Large amplitude of ~100 mV.

Duration of graded potentials may be a few Action potential duration is relatively short; 3-5
milliseconds to seconds. ms.

Ion channels responsible for graded potentials

may be ligand-gated (extracellular ligands such Voltage-gated Na+ and voltage-gated
as neurotransmitters), mechanosensitive, or K+ channels are responsible for the neuronal
temperature sensitive channels, or may be action potential.
channels that are gated by cytoplasmic signaling
molecules.

The ions involved are usually Na+, K+, or Cl−. The ions involved are Na+ and K+ (for neuronal
action potentials).

No refractory period is associated with graded Absolute and relative refractory periods are
potentials. important aspects of action potentials.
Graded potentials can be summed over time Summation is not possible with action
(temporal summation) and across space potentials (due to the all-or-none nature, and
(spatial summation). the presence of refractory periods).

Action potential propagation to neighboring

Graded potentials travel by passive spread membrane regions is characterized by
(electrotonic spread) to neighboring regeneration of a new action potential at
membrane regions. every point along the way.

Amplitude diminishes as graded potentials Amplitude does not diminish as action

travel away from the initial site (decremental). potentials propagate along neuronal
projections (non-decremental).

Graded potentials are brought about by

external stimuli (in sensory neurons) or by Action potentials are triggered by membrane
neurotransmitters released in synapses, where depolarization to threshold. Graded potentials
they cause graded potentials in the post- are responsible for the initial membrane
synaptic cell. depolarization to threshold.

In principle, graded potentials can occur in any

region of the cell plasma membrane, however,
in neurons, graded potentials occur in Occur in plasma membrane regions where
specialized regions of synaptic contact with voltage-gated Na+ and K+channels are highly
other cells (post-synaptic plasma membrane in concentrated.
dendrites or soma), or membrane regions
involved in receiving sensory stimuli.
Thank You
 GOOD AFTERNOON

TYPES OF ACTION POTENTIAL

BY MINI REDDY.
Roll No. 33
MBBS BATCH 2017-2018
There are usually 3 types of Action
Potential :
• MONOPHASIC
• BIPHASIC
• POLYPHASIC
 ❄ TYPE 1 : MONOPHASIC AP
• To record a Monophasic
Action potential, one of
the recording electrodes
should be in ECF and the
other in ICF.
• It’s primarily in ONE
direction.
• The depolarization is because of influx of Na+ and
Repolarization is because of efflux of K+
• The after depolarization is because of decreased
rate of movement of K+ out of cell, as during
Repolarization phase, the efflux of K+ gradually
decreases the concentration gradient for K+ to
move out.
REPOLARIZATION
EFFLUX OF K+ ions
❄ TYPE 2 : BIPHASIC AP
• It can be recorded by
placing both the
recording electrodes
either in the ECF or ICF.
• The recording will have
two peaks and one will
be the mirror image of
the other.
• The Iso-potential
duration between the
mirror images will
depend on the distance
between the two
recording electrodes and
is directly related.
• As the wave of depolarization reaches the
electrode nearest the stimulator, the electrode
becomes negative relative to the other electrode
• Therefore, the record shows an upward
deflection followed by an isoelectric interval and
then a downward deflection. This sequence is
called as biphasic action potential.
• The duration of the isoelectric interval is
proportionate to the speed of conduction of the
nerve and the distance between the two
recording electrodes.
❄ POLYPHASIC AP :
• POLY-MANY, PHASIC-PHASES
• The motor unit potentials have a prolonged duration and
are often described as giant polyphasic potentials.
• Ex : EMG (ELECTROMYOGRAHY)
❄ VOLTAGE CLAMP TECHNIQUE :
• The concept of the voltage clamp is attributed to
Kenneth Cole and George Marmont which was later
developed by Huxley and Hodgekin.
• They inserted an internal electrode into the giant
axon of a squid ( SQUID GIANT AXON )and began to
apply a current keeping the VOLTAGE CONSTANT.
• Cole discovered that it was possible to use two
electrodes and a feedback circuit to keep the cell's
membrane potential at a level set by the
experimenter.
• SQUIDS HAVE THESE ENORMOUS NEURONS THAT
YOU CAN ACTUALLY SEE WITH YOUR NAKED EYE.
• Voltage Clamp is a technique used to control the
voltage across the membrane of a small or
isopotential area of the nerve cell.

• The electrodes are connected to an amplifier,

which measures membrane potential and feeds
the signal into a feedback amplifier.

• Cell membranes of excitable cells contain many

voltage gated channels. It allows the membrane
voltage to be manipulated, allowing the current-
voltage relationships of membrane channels to
be studied.
VOLTAGE CLAMP
REFRENCES :
• Ganong's. Review of. Medical Physiology 20th Edition.
• Huxley, Andrew (2002). "From overshoot to voltage clamp".
THANK YOU