Ethereum
1
Overvie
w
• Ethereum Basics
• Under the hood
• App deployment and connections
• Appendix
2
Overvie
w
• Highly recommended intro
• https://medium.com/@preethikasireddy/
how-does-ethereum-work-anyway-22d1df
506369
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History of Ethereum
• Russian-Canadian programmer
• Co-founded Ethereum when he
was 19 years old
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History of Ethereum -
Timeline
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Important
Concepts
• Cryptography (similar to Bitcoin)
• Blockchain
o Accounts (Two types) and Wallets
o Transactions
• Smart Contracts
o Solidity
Language Used for Smart Contract
Development
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Cryptograph
y
• Hash functions
• Symmetric Cryptography
• Asymmetric Cryptography
• Signatures
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Hash
Functions
• BTC uses SHA-256
• Ethereum uses Keccak-256
o Similar to SHA-3 (variant)
o Won contest for security in 2007
o Used for all hashing in Ethereum
o Derived differently than standard block-cipher based hashes
or previous SHA functions
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Digital Signatures (Digital
Proof)
• Same use-case/cryptographic method (ECDSA) as BTC
• Signer uses private key to generate a signed message
• Signed message can be verified using the signer’s public
key
• Hashes are signed in Ethereum, not the data itself
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Blockchain
Fully Distributed Database like BTC
Advantages:
• Highly Secure
• Transparent
• Immutable
Disadvantages:
• Scaling
• Performance 10
ereum Blockchain
Blocks consist of 3 elements
• Transaction List
List of all transactions included in a block
• Block Header
Group of 15 elements
• Ommer List
List of all Uncle blocks included
(described later)
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ereum Blockchain
Uncles/Ommers
• Sometimes valid block solutions don’t make main chain
• Any broadcast block (up to 6 previous blocks back) with
valid PoW and difficulty can be included as an uncle
• Maximum of two can be included per block
• Uncle block transactions are not included – just header
• Aimed to decrease centralization and reward work
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Ethereum Blockchain
Uncles/Ommers Rewards:
• Uncle headers can be included in main block for 1/32 of the
main block miner’s reward given to said miner
• Miners of uncle blocks receive percent of main reward
according to:
• (Un + (8 - Bn)) * 5 / 8, where Un and Bn are uncle and block
numbers respectively.
• Example (1333 + 8 - 1335) * ⅝ = 3.75 ETH
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Ethereum Blockchain
• All blocks visible like BTC
• However, blocks have a
different structure than
BTC
https://etherscan.io/
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ereum Blockchain
Blocks faster than BTC and reward is different
• Every 12 seconds
• 5 ETH main reward
• Miners can make a bit more by including uncle blocks
(1/32 of an ETH each) up to maximum of two
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ereum Blockchain
Blocks faster than BTC and reward is different
• Uses EthHash mining algorithm (different than Bitcoin)
Helps mitigate ASIC and GPU advantages
Involves smart contract execution
• Difficulty is adjusted every block (not every two weeks)
– this is an important identifier for the Uncle blocks
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Ethereum Blockchain
Key differences
• Blocks keep track of balances – not “unspent
transaction outputs” like BTC
• Merkle-Patricia tries used (they have three branches
compared to the Merkle tree’s two)
• Will transition from Proof of Work to Proof of Stake
with Casper protocol
• See appendix for more details
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Ethereum
Nodes
• Validate all transactions and new blocks
• Operate in a P2P fashion
• Each contains a copy of the entire Blockchain
• Light clients - store only block headers
Provide easy verification through tree data structure
Don’t execute transactions, used primarily for balance validation
• Implemented in a variety of languages (Go, Rust, etc.)
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Accounts and
Accounts: Wallets
• Two Kinds:
External Owned Accounts - (EOA, most common account)
Contract Accounts
• Consist of a public/private keypair
• Allow for interaction with the blockchain
Wallets:
• A set of one or more external accounts
• Used to store/transfer ether 19
Accounts and
Wallets
External Account (EOA, Valid Ethereum Address)
• Has an associated nonce (amount of transactions
sent from the account) and a balance
• codeHash - Hash of associated account code, i.e. a
computer program for a smart contract (hash of an
empty string for external accounts, EOAs)
• Storage Root is root hash of Merkle-Patricia trie of
associated account data
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Accounts and
Wallets
Contract Account
• Ethereum accounts can store and execute code
Has an associated nonce and balance
codeHash - hash of associated account code storageRoot
contains Merkle tree of associated storage data
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Example
Account
Private Key:
0x2dcef1bfb03d6a950f91c573616cdd778d9581690db1cc43141f7cca06fd08ee
• Ethereum Private keys are 66 character strings (with 0x appended).
Case is irrelevant. Same derivation through ECDSA as BTC.
Address:
0xA6fA5e50da698F6E4128994a4c1ED345E98Df50
• Ethereum Private keys map to addresses directly. Simply the last 40
characters of the Keccak-256 hash of the public key. Address is 42
characters total (append 0x to front). 22
Transaction
• A request tosmodify the state of the blockchain
Can run code (contracts) which change global state
o Contrasts only balance updates in BTC
• Signed by originating account
• Types:
Send value from one account to another account
Create smart contract
Execute smart contract code
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her Denominations
• Wei - lowest denomination
Named after Wei Dai - author of b-money paper (1998), many
core concepts used in BTC implementation
1/1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (quintillion)
• Szabo - next denomination
• Named after Nick Szabo
- author of Bit-Gold
• Finney – 2nd highest denomination
• Named after Hal Finney
- received first Tx from Nakamoto 24
http://www.weidai.com/bmoney.txt
Smart Contracts
• Executable code
• Turing Complete
• Function like an external account
Hold funds
Can interact with other accounts and smart contracts
Contain code
• Can be called through transactions
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Code
•Execution
Every node contains a virtual machine (similar to Java)
Called the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)
Compiles code from high-level language to bytecode
Executes smart contract code and broadcasts state
• Every full-node on the blockchain processes
every transaction and stores the entire state
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Gas
• Halting problem (infinite loop) – reason for Gas
• Problem: Cannot tell whether or not a program will run
infinitely from compiled code
• Solution: charge fee per computational step to limit infinite
loops and stop flawed code from executing
• Every transaction needs to specify an estimate of the
amount of gas it will spend
• Essentially a measure of how much one is willing to
spend on a transaction, even if buggy
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Gas
Cost
• Gas Price: current market price of a unit of Gas (in Wei)
Check gas price here: https://ethgasstation.info/
Is always set before a transaction by user
• Gas Limit: maximum amount of Gas user is willing to
spend
• Helps to regulate load on network
• Gas Cost (used when sending transactions) is calculated
by gasLimit*gasPrice.
All blocks have a Gas Limit (maximum Gas each block can use) 28
PoW vs. PoS
Ethereum in the process of moving to Proof of Stake
• This approach does not require large expenditures on computing
and energy
• Miners are now “validators” and post a deposit in an escrow
account
• The more escrow you post, the higher the probability you will be
chosen to nominate the next block
• If you nominate a block with invalid transactions, you lose your
escrow
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PoW vs. PoS
Ethereum in the process of moving to Proof of Stake
• One issue with this approach is that those that have the most
ethereum will be able to get even more
• This leads to centralization eventually
• On the other hand, it reduces the chance of a 51% attack and
allows for near instant transaction approvals
• The protocol is called Casper and this will be a hard fork
https://blockonomi.com/ethereum-casper/
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Other approaches to
conensus
There are many other types of consensus
• (PoW) Proof of Work (Bitcoin, Ethereum, …)
• (PoS) Proof of Stake (Ethereum in future)
• (PoI) Proof of Importance (used in NEM)
• (PBFT) Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (Hyperledger Fabric)
• (FBFT) Federated Byzantine Fault Tolerance (Ripple, Stellar)
• (DPoS) Delegated Proof of Stake
• (PoET) Proof of Elapsed Time (Hyperledger Sawtooth)
https://medium.com/@chrshmmmr/consensus-in-blockchain-systems-in-short-691fc7d1fefe
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A. Ethereum Blockchain Header
• Hash of included ommer’s
stored in block header
• State root is the hash of a
merkle trie that holds all
account information
• Similar storage structure
for transactions and
receipts
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A. Ethereum Blockchain State
StateRoot, TransactionRoot, and ReciptsRoot
• Stored in data structure known as a
Merkle-Patricia trie
• Similar to the Merkle trie used in BTC,
but with three leaves per node
• Trie is cryptographically secure as any
alteration of a leaf or intermediary node
results in a different root hash
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A. Ethereum Blockchain State
StateRoot
• Each node in the stateRoot trie
represents an Ethereum address
• Each address has 4 components
• Nonce - list of number of Tx’s from
address
• CodeHash - hash of associated code
• StorageRoot - Merkle-Patricia tree
root of account storage contents
• Balance - balance of account
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A. Ethereum Blockchain
Ethereum “difficulty bomb”
• Spike (increase) in mining difficulty
• Introduced to attempt to reduce number of miners
Aimed to pre-date shift of algorithm from PoW to Proof-of-
Stake (PoS)
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B. Smart Contract Programming
• Solidity (javascript based), most popular
Not yet as functional as other, more mature, programming
languages
• Serpent (python based)
• LLL (lisp based)
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B. Smart Contract Programming
Solidity
Solidity is a language similar to JavaScript which allows you to develop contracts and compile to
EVM bytecode. It is currently the flagship language of Ethereum and the most popular.
• Solidity Documentation - Solidity is the flagship Ethereum high level language that is used to
write contracts.
• Solidity online realtime compiler
Serpent
Serpent is a language similar to Python which can be used to develop contracts and compile to
EVM bytecode. It is intended to be maximally clean and simple, combining many of the efficiency
benefits of a low-level language with ease-of-use in programming style, and at the same time
adding special domain-specific features for contract programming. Serpent is compiled using LLL.
• Serpent on the ethereum wiki
• Serpent EVM compiler 37
B. Smart Contract Programming
Atom Ethereum interface - Plugin for the Atom editor that features
syntax highlighting, compilation and a runtime environment (requires
backend node).
Atom Solidity Linter - Plugin for the Atom editor that provides Solidity
linting.
Vim Solidity - Plugin for the Vim editor providing syntax highlighting.
Vim Syntastic - Plugin for the Vim editor providing compile checking.
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B. Smart Contract Programming:
Solidity
contract Example {
uint value;
function setValue(uint pValue) {
value = pValue;
}
function getValue() returns (uint) {
return value;
}
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B. Smart Contract Programming:
Solidity
var logIncrement =
OtherExample.LogIncrement({sender: userAddress,
uint value});
logIncrement.watch(function(err, result) {
// do something with result
})
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C. Development Workflow
Testing Cycle
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test
● Onboard Additional Users
● Create New Accounts
● Develop New Applications
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C. Development Workflow: Create
Account
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test
• Programmatically: Go, Python, C++, JavaScript, Haskell
• Tools
MyEtherWallet.com
MetaMask
TestRPC
Many other websites
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C. Development Workflow: Fund
Account
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test
• From friends
• Faucet
• Exchanges (for public blockchain)
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C. Development Workflow: Develop
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test
• Ethereum Application Components:
Base application: can be developed in any language
Smart contract: developed in Solidity or one of the other
contract compatible languages
Connector library: facilitates communication between base
application and smart contracts (Metamask)
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C. Development Workflow: Sign and
Deploy
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test
Transaction
Sign
Signed tx
Deploy Live Smart
Contract
Bytecodes Connector*
ary that facilitates communication and connection with Blockchain; Connects your code to a running no
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C. Development Workflow: TestRPC
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact
Account Account Deploy &
Test
TestRPC/TestChain
• Local development or Test Blockchain
• https://github.com/ethereumjs/testrpc
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C. Development Workflow: TestRPC
• EthereumJS TestRPC: https://github.com/ethereumjs/testrpc is
suited for development and testing
• It's a complete blockchain-in-memory that runs only on your
development machine
• It processes transactions instantly instead of waiting for the
default block time – so you can test that your code works quickly
– and it tells you immediately when your smart contracts run into
errors
• It also makes a great client for automated testing
• Truffle knows how to use its special features to speed up test
runtime by almost 90%. 47
