Topic 7: DC Machines

 Mapped to LO4: Explain the principles governing the action of: DC and
AC circuits, electric motors, electrical transducers, electric supply systems.

 WHY: Why this topic is important

 This topic gives knowledge about characteristics of different electro motors in
DC supply. This is important for selecting right motor for different applications
in the industry.
 HOW: Teaching and learning strategies
 The topic will be delivered through lectures and tutorials. During lecture
sessions, the topic will thoroughly be discussed. Multiple exercises will be
solved in the tutorial to guide the students the solving steps and different solving
approaches. Additional consultation session will be provided upon request.
 WHAT: What is the expected result/impact?
 Students are expected to demonstrate critical thinking and problem-solving
abilities through solving tutorial questions, quizzes and active class participation.
Students are expected to pass the examinations (Test and Final exam).
 Today’s Outline
 Concept of DC machines
 Basic Construction
 Working Principle
 Analysis of DC motor
 Equivalent circuit of DC motor
 Separately-excited
 Self-excited (Shunt & Series)
 Performance parameter
 Speed regulation
 Torque – speed characteristics
 Power Flow Diagram
 Efficiency
Introduction to DC Machines

 An electric machine is a device that can convert either

mechanical energy to electric energy or electric energy to
mechanical energy.

 When such a device is used to convert mechanical energy to

electric energy, it is called a generator.

 When it converts electric energy to mechanical energy, it is

called a motor.

 Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy

from one form to another through the action of a magnetic
field.
Electromechanical Energy Conversion

 An electromechanical energy conversion device is the device

that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or,
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Generator action: An emf (voltage) is induced in a conductor
if it moves through a magnetic field.
 Motor action: A force is induced in a conductor that has a
current going through it and placed in a magnetic field

Mechanical Electrical
Generator
Energy Energy

Electrical Mechanical
Motor
Energy Energy
Basic Construction of DC Motor

 An electrical motor consists of:

Stator
 Stationary part of the motor
 Consist of stator frame, stator core and stator winding.
 Generate the rotating magnetic field to drive the armature.
Basic Construction of DC Motor

 An electrical motor consists of:

Rotor
 Rotating part connected to a shaft that couples the
machine to its mechanical load.
 The shaft and rotor are supported by bearings so that they
can rotate freely.
 Small separation between rotor and stator (air-gap)
Basic Construction of DC Motor

 An electrical motor consists of:

Windings
 Windings are usually made of copper wire.
 Armature winding - The winding through which the
voltage is applied or induced.
 Field winding - The winding through which a current is
passed to produce flux (electromagnet)
Basic Construction of DC Motor

https://
www.youtube.com/
watch?v=GQatiB-JHdI
Working Principle of DC Motor

https://
www.youtube.com/
watch?v=j_F4limaHYI

 The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying

armature, connected to the supply end through commutator segments and
brushes. The armature is placed in between north pole and south pole of a
permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram above.
 As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts
on it due to the electromagnetic effect of the magnet on armature conductors.
 Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to determine the direction of the force acting
on the armature conductors (rotation direction) of DC motor.
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
When a current-carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there will
naturally be a force acting on the conductor. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule is a
simple and accurate way to find the direction of force/motion of the conductor
in an electric motor when the magnetic field direction and the current
direction are known.
 Thumb: The thumb is a representation of the
direction of thrust on the conductor.
 Index Finger: Also known as the forefinger, this
represents the direction of the magnetic field.
 Middle Finger: Also known as the center finger, is
representative of the direction of the current.
Magnetic Force on Current Carrying Conductor
 The forces that makes motor to turn are forces that a magnetic field exerts
on a conductor carrying a current.
 The force is always perpendicular to both the conductor and the field, with
the direction determined by the right-hand rule.
Let’s try one simple example – Motoring Force

In which orientation, A, or B, should the battery be

placed in the circuit that the conducting bar slides to the
right side?

The answer is: A

Working Principle of DC Motor

Here α (alpha) is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of
reference or the initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of
magnetic field.

w is the distance separation between two conductors = width of the armature turn
Working Principle of DC Motor – Step 1

Since, α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this
position is maximum given by τ = BILw.

This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the
armature and sets it into the rotation.
Working Principle of DC Motor – Step 2

Once the armature sets in motion, the angle α between the actual position of
the armature and its initial reference position goes on increasing in the path of
its rotation until it becomes 90⁰ from its initial position. Consequently, the term
cosα decreases and also the value of torque.

The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BILw
when α is greater than 0⁰.
Working Principle of DC Motor – Step 3
In the path of the
rotation of the armature
a point is reached where
the actual position of the
rotor is exactly
perpendicular to its
initial position, i.e. α =
90⁰, and as a result the
term cosα = 0.

Virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the
armature does not come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the
operation of DC motor has been engineered in such a way that the inertia of
motion at this point is just enough to overcome this point of null torque. Once
the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual position of the
armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it
again.
 The schematic diagram for a DC motor is as
DC Motor Equivalent circuit below. A DC motor has two distinct circuits:
Field circuit and armature circuit.

𝑉 𝐹 = 𝐼 𝐹 𝑅𝐹

Field circuit is responsible for the magnetic field and is supplied with a separate DC
voltage .

The resistance and inductance of the field winding are represented by and .

As a result of the voltage, a current is produced in the winding and it establishes the
necessary magnetic field.
DC Motor Equivalent circuit

𝑉 𝑇 =𝐸 𝐴 +𝐼 𝐴 𝑅 𝐴
Initial state (motor standstill)
Starting current HIGH

In the armature (rotor) circuit, is the voltage applied across the motor terminals.

The voltage shown in the equivalent circuit represents the average voltage induced in
the armature due to the motion of the conductors relative to the magnetic field. In a
motor, is sometimes called a back emf (electromotive force) because it opposes the
applied external electrical source.

is the current flowing in the armature circuit.

is the resistance of the armature windings plus the brush resistance.
DC Motor Equivalent circuit Torque T is a function of force (F) and the
distance (w), the constant K mix all the
constant parameters (eg. length, area and
distance)
𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑣 =𝐾 ∅ 𝐼 𝐴
∅
𝐵=
𝐴

𝐸 𝐴=𝐾 ∅ 𝜔𝑚 K is a machine constant that depends on the design

parameters of the machine, is the magnetic flux produced by
each stator pole, and is the angular velocity of the rotor.

𝑃 𝑑𝑒𝑣 =𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝜔 𝑚 The developed power is the power converted to mechanical

form, which is given by the product of developed torque and
𝑃 𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸 𝐴 𝐼 𝐴 angular velocity:
Magnetization Curve for DC Motor
The magnetization curve of a DC machine is a plot of
versus the field current with the machine being driven
at a constant speed.

The magnetization curve

flattens out for high field
currents due to magnetic
saturation of the iron. is directly
proportional to
speed (angular
velocity) .

2π𝑛
𝜔=
60
represents the voltage at
speed , and is the voltage at
speed
Example
Example

OR

Use KVL at
armature side
DC Machines Configuration
 DC Machines can be classified according to the electrical connections of
the armature winding and the field windings.
 Separately-excited (the field excitation that provides the magnetizing
current is occasionally provided by an external source)
 Self-excited (Field excitation is derived from armature voltage). The field
winding can be connected either in series or in parallel (shunt) with the
armature winding.

Self-excited Separately-excited
Separately-excited DC Motor

 The field and armature winding are electrically separated from one
another.
 The field winding is excited by a separate DC source.
 Connection is similar to shunt-connected motor (self-excited) but here
with different sources

 Total input power: 𝑃 𝑖𝑛 =𝑉 𝐹 𝐼 𝐹 +𝑉 𝑇 𝐼 𝐴

Permanent magnet DC Motor
 Permanent magnet DC motors are one type of separately-excited DC
motor.
 The field is supplied by magnets mounted on the stator rather than by field
coils.
 Its characteristics are similar to those of the separately excited machine
except that the field cannot be adjusted.

Advantages
 No power is required to establish the field—leading to better efficiency.
 PM motors can be smaller than equivalent machines with field windings.
Disadvantages
 The magnets can become demagnetized by overheating.
 The flux density magnitude is smaller in PM motors than in wound-field
machines (smaller torque).
Applications
 Most of the small DC motors are separately-excited using permanent
magnet to have higher efficiency. (computer fan, automobiles wipers ,
windows)
Self-excited DC Motor (Shunt)
 The armature and field winding are connected in parallel (shunt).
 Same armature voltage and field voltage.
 Connection is similar to separately-excited motor but here with similar
source (main voltage terminal)
 Good for application where constant speed is required and starting torque
is not severe. (fan, blower, lathe machine, etc.)

 Total input power:

𝑃 𝑖𝑛 =𝑉 𝑇 𝐼 𝐿

 Total input current (KCL):

𝐼 𝐿 =𝐼 𝐴 + 𝐼 𝐹
Self-excited DC Motor (Series)

 The armature and field winding are connected in series

 Armature and field windings carry same current.
 Series motors that are intended for use with AC sources are called
Universal Motors because in principle they can operate from either AC or
DC.
 Good for application where motor need to be run under heavy load (high
starting torque) – hoist, cranes, elevators, etc.

 Apply KVL (assume steady-state current):

𝑉 𝑇 =𝐼 𝐴 𝑅 𝐹 +𝐼 𝐴 𝑅 𝐴 +𝐸 𝐴
Performance Parameters – Speed Regulation

 The speed regulation is a measure of the change in speed from no load to

full load, expressed as a percentage of the full-load speed.

 In equation form, the percent speed regulation is

 Where is the no-load speed, and is the full-load speed of a dc motor.

 Torque – Speed Characteristics: Self-excited Shunt DC Motor

 Torque – speed relationship plots as a

straight line
 It shows a tradeoff between how much
torque a motor delivers, and how fast
the output shaft spins.
 Stall torque - torque is maximum, but
the shaft is not rotating (stop rotate).
 No load speed - maximum output speed
of the motor (no load / free running)
Torque – Speed Characteristics: Self-excited Series DC Motor

Assume a linear equation to approximate the relationship

between magnetic flux and field current.

where is a constant that depends on the number of field windings, the

geometry of the magnetic circuit, and the B–H characteristics of the iron.

𝐸 𝐴=𝐾 ∅ 𝜔𝑚 𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑣 =𝐾 ∅ 𝐼 𝐴
Torque – Speed Characteristics: Self-excited Series DC Motor
 A high torque is obtained at low speed and a
low torque is obtained at high speed.

predicts infinite no-load speed.

What happen if the voltage /

current at the terminal
change polarity?

What happen if the load is

disconnected suddenly?
Power Flow in DC Motor: Self-excited DC Motor (Shunt)
𝑃 𝑖𝑛 =𝑉 𝑇 𝐼 𝐿 𝐼 𝐿 =𝐼 𝐴 + 𝐼 𝐹
Some of this power is used to
establish the field. The power
absorbed by the field circuit is
converted to heat.

2
𝑃 field − loss=𝐼 𝑓 𝑅 𝑓
Some power is lost in the armature
resistance (armature loss due to
heating of the)
The total power loss in the two windings (field and armature -
which are made of copper) is the called the total copper loss.

Power developed and converted into

mechanical power
𝑃 dev =𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃 𝑐𝑢
Power Flow in DC Motor: Self-excited DC Motor (Shunt)

Power Flow
Diagram

Mechanical & Magnetic

Losses

Electrical / Copper
Losses

The output power and output torque are less than the
developed values because of rotational losses, which include
friction, windage, eddy-current loss, and hysteresis loss.
Rotational power loss is approximately proportional to speed.
Performance Parameters – Efficiency

 The power efficiency of a motor is given by

𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100 %
𝑃 𝑖𝑛

 Re-expressed the efficiency in terms of motor power loss

𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= ×100 %
𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃 field − loss + 𝑃 arm −loss + 𝑃 rotate

Note that the method to calculate the input and output power may varies
accordingly, depending on the information given. It is important to
understand the operation of the motor circuit (circuit theory) to properly
interpret the information given.
Example
Example

Field current

Machine constant for this

value
of field current.
Example

Assume that the rotational power

loss is proportional to speed.

The developed torque

The armature current

Use KVL
(Induced armature voltage)
Example

To find speed

To find efficiency, compute the output power and the input power
 Example

Since we are neglecting losses,

output torque and power = the developed torque and
power

The angular speed

The output power

Example

For a fixed supply voltage , torque is

inversely proportional to speed squared

The output power

of heavier load
Thank you for
your attention…