Searching

• Linear List Searches

• Sequential Search
» The sentinel search,
» The probability search,
» The ordered search.

• Binary Search
• Hashed List Searches
– Collision Resolution
 Linear List Searches

• We study searches that work with arrays.

 Linear List Searches

There are two basic searches for arrays

1. The sequential search.

– It can be used to locate an item in any array.

2. The binary search.

– It requires an ordered list.
 Linear List Searches
Sequential Search
• The list is not ordered!
• We will use this technique only for small arrays.

We start searching at the beginning of the list and

continue until we find the target entity.
a. Eighter we find it,
b. or we reach the end of the list!
Locating data in unordered list.
 Linear List Searches
Sequential Search Algorithm

• RETURN: The algorithm must be tell two

things to calling algorithm;
1. Did it find the data ?
2. If it did, what is the index (address)?
 Linear List Searches
Sequential Search Algorithm

• The searching algorithm requires five parameters:

1. The list.
2. An index to the last element in the list.
3. The target.
4. The address where the found element’s index location is
to be stored.
5. The address where the found or not found boolean is to
be stored.
 Sequential Search Algorithm
algorithm SeqSearch (val list <array>, val last <index>,
val target <keyType>, ref locn <index>)
Locate the target in an unordered list of size elements.
PRE list must contain at least one element.
last is index to last element in the list.
target contains the data to be located.
locn is address of index in calling algorithm.
POST if found – matching index stored in locn & found TRUE
if not found – last stored in locn & found FALSE
RETURN found <boolean>
 Sequential Search Algorithm
1. looker = 1
2. loop (looker < last AND target not equal list(looker))
1. looker = looker + 1
3. locn = looker
4. if (target equal list(looker))
1. found = true
5. else
1. found = false
6. return found
Big-O(n)
end SeqSearch
 Variations On Sequential Search

There are three variations of sequential search algorithm:

1. The sentinel search,

2. The probability search,

3. The ordered search.

 Sequential Search Algorithm
The Sentinel Search
• If the target will be found in the list, we can eliminate the test for the end
of list.
algorithm SentinelSearch (val list <array>, val last <index>,
val target <keyType>, ref locn <index>)
Locate the target in an unordered list of size elements.
PRE list must contain element at the end for the sentinel.
last is index to last element in the list.
target contains the data to be located.
locn is address of index in calling algorithm.
POST if found – matching index stored in locn & found TRUE
if not found – last stored in locn & found FALSE
RETURN found <boolean>
 Sequential Search Algorithm
The Sentinel Search
1. list[last+1] = target
2. looker = 1
3. loop (target not equal list(looker))
1. looker = looker + 1
4. if (looker <= last)
1. found = true
2. locn = looker
5. else
1. found = false
2. locn = last
6. return found
Big-O(n)
end SentinelSearch
 Sequential Search Algorithm
The Probability Search
algorithm ProbabilitySearch (val list <array>, val last <index>,
val target <keyType>, ref locn <index>)
Locate the target in a list ordered by the probability of each element being the
target – most probable first, least probable last.
PRE list must contain at least one element.
last is index to last element in the list.
target contains the data to be located.
locn is address of index in calling algorithm.
POST if found – matching index stored in locn & found TRUE and element
moved up in priority.
if not found – last stored in locn & found FALSE
RETURN found <boolean>
 Sequential Search Algorithm
The Probability Search
1. looker = 1
2. loop (looker < last AND target not equal list[looker])
1. looker = looker + 1
3. if (target = list[looker])
1. found = true
2. if (looker > 1)
1. temp = list[looker-1]
2. list[looker-1] = list[looker]
3. list[looker] = temp
4. looker = looker - 1
4. else Big-O(n)
1. found = false
5. locn = looker
6. return found
end ProbabilitySearch
 Sequential Search Algorithm
The Ordered List Search
• If the list is small it can be more efficient to use a sequential search.
• We can stop search loop, when the target becomes less than or equal to the
testing element of the list.
algorithm OrderedListSearch (val list <array>, val last <index>,
val target <keyType>, ref locn <index>)
Locate the target in a list ordered on target.
PRE list must contain at least one element.
last is index to last element in the list.
target contains the data to be located.
locn is address of index in calling algorithm.
POST if found – matching index stored in locn & found TRUE
if not found – last stored in locn & found FALSE
RETURN found <boolean>
 Sequential Search Algorithm
The Ordered List Search
1. if (target <= list[last])
1. looker = 1
2. loop (target > list[looker])
1. looker = looker + 1
2. else
1. looker = last
3. if (target equal list[looker]
1. found = true
4. else
1. found = false
5. locn = looker Big-O(n)
6. return found
end OrderedListSearch
 Sequential Search

• The sequential search algorithm is very slow for the big lists.

• Big-O(n)

• If the list is ordered, we can use a more efficient algorithm

called the binary search.

 Binary Search
Test the data in the element at the middle of the array.

If it is in the first half! If it is in the second half!

Test the data in the element Test the data in the element
at the middle of the array. at the middle of the array.

If it is in the If it is in the If it is in the If it is in the

first half! second half! first half! second half!

.. .. .. ..
. . . .
 mid=(first+last)/2

target > mid

first = mid +1

target < mid

last = mid -1
first becomes
larger than last!
 Binary Search Algorithm

algorithm BinarySearch(val list <array>, val last <index>,

val target <keyType>, ref locn <index>)
Search an ordered list using binary search.
PRE list is ordered:it must contain at least one element.
last is index to the largest element in the list.
target is the value of element being sought.
locn is address of index in calling algorithm.
POST Found : locn assigned index to target element.
found set true.
Not found: locn = element below or above target.
found set false.
RETURN found <boolean>
 Binary Search Algorithm
1. first = 1
2. last = end
3. loop (first <= last)
1. mid = (first + last)/2
2. if (target > list[mid])
1. first = mid + 1 (Look in upper half).
3. else if (target < list[mid]
1. last = mid – 1 (Look it lower halt).
4. else
1. first = last + 1 (Found equal: force exit)
4. locn = mid
5. if (target equal list[mid])
1. found = true
6. else
1. found = false
7. Return Big-O(log2n)
end BinarySearch
 Comparison of
binary and sequential searches

Sequential Sequential
Size Binary (Average) (Worst case)
16 4 8 16
50 6 25 50
256 8 128 256
1.000 10 500 1.000
10.000 14 5.000 10.000
100.000 17 50.000 100.000
1.000.000 20 500.000 1.000.000
 Hashed List Searches

• In an ideal search, we would know exactly where the data are

and go directly there.

• We use a hashing algorithm to transform the key into the index

of array, that contains the data we need to locate.

•It is a key-to-address transformation!
•We call set of keys that hash to the same location in our list
synonymns.
•A collision is the event that occurs when a hashing algorithm produces
an address for an insertion key and that address is already occupied.
•Each calculation of an address and test for success is known as a probe.
Hashing Methods
 Direct Hashing Method

• The key is the address without any algorithmic manipulation.

• The data structure must contain an element for every possible key.

• It quarantees that there are no synonyms.

• We can use direct hashing very limited!

 Direct Hashing Method

Direct hashing of
employee numbers.
 Subtraction Hashing Method

• The keys are consecutive and do not start from one.

Example:
• A company have 100 employees,
• Employee numbers start from 1000 to 1100.

1 Ali Esin
2 Sema Metin
x=1001 1
x=1002 2
x – 1000 100
x=1100

99
100 Filiz Yılmaz
 Modulo Division Hashing Method

• The modulo-division method divides the key by the array size

and uses remainder plus one for the address.

address = key mod (listSize) + 1

• If a list size selected a prime number, that produces fewer

collisions than other list sizes.

 Modulo Division Hashing Method

121267 / 307 = 395 and

remainder = 2
hash(121267)= 2 +1 = 3

We have 300 employees, and the first prime greater that 300 is 307!.
 Digit Extraction Method

• Selected digits are extracted from the key and used as the
address.

Example:

379452  394
121267  112
378845  388
526842  568
 Midsquare Hashing Method

• The key is squared and the address selected from the middle of
the squared number.
• The most obvious limitation of this method is the size of the
key.
Example:
9452 * 9452 = 89340304  3403 is the address.
Or
379452  379 * 379 = 143641  364
Folding Hashing Method
 Pseudorandom Hashing Method

• The key is used as the seed in a pseudorandom number

generator and resulting random number then scaled in to a
possiple address range using modulo division.

Use a function such as: y = (ax + b (mod m))+1

1. x is the key value,
2. a is coefficient,
3. b is a constant.
4. m is the count of the element in the list.
5. y is the address.
 Pseudorandom Hashing Method

y = (ax + b (mod m)) + 1  y = (17x + 7 (mod 307)) + 1

• x = 121267 is the key value,
• a = 17
• b=7
• m =307
1. y = ((( 17 * 121267) + 7) mod 307) + 1
2. y = ((2061539 +7) mod 307) + 1
3. y = 2061546 mod 307 + 1
4. y = 41 + 1
5. y = 42
 Rotation Hashing Method

Rotation is often used in combination with folding and psuedorandom

hashing.
 Collision Resolution Methods

All above methods of handling collision are independent of the

hashing algorithm.
 Collision Resolution Concepts
“Load Factor”
• We define a full list, as a list in which all elements except one
contain data.
• Rule: A hashed list should not be allowed to become more
than %75 full!
the number of filled elements in the list
Load Factor = ------------------------------------------------------ x 100
total number of elements in the list

k
α= --------- x 100 the number of elements
n
 Collision Resolution Concepts
“Clustering”
• Some hashing algorithms tend to couse data to group
within the list. This is known as clustering.
• Clustering is created by collision.
• If the list contains a high degree of clustering, then
the number of probes to locate an element grows and
the processing efficiency of the list is reduced.
 Collision Resolution Concepts
“Clustering”

• Clustering types are:

– Primary clustering; clustering around a home address in
our list.
– Secondary clustering; the data are widely distributed across
the whole list so that the list appears to be well distributed,
however, the time to locate a requested element of data can
become large.
 Collision Resolution Methods
Open Addressing
• When a collision occurs, the home area addresses are searched
for an open or unoccupied element where the new data can be
placed.
• We have four different method:
– Linear probe,

– Quadratic probe,

– Double hashing,

– Key offset.
 Open Addressing
“Linear Probe”
• When data cannot be stored in the home address, we
resolve the collision by adding one to the current address.
Advantage:
• Simple implementation!
• Data tend to remain near their home address.
Disadvantages:
• It tends to produce primary clustering.
.
• The search algorithm may become more complex
especially after data have been deleted!
 Open Addressing
“Linear Probe”

15532 / 307 = 50 and

remainder = 2
hash(15532)= 2 +1 = 3
New address = 3+1 =4
Open Addressing
“Linear Probe”
 Open Addressing
“Quadratic Probe”
• Clustering can be eliminated by adding a value other than one
to the current address.
• The increment is the collision probe number squared.
– For the first probe 12
– For the second probe 22
– For the third collision probe 32 ...
– Until we eighter find an empty element or we exhoust the possible
elements.
– We use the modulo of the quadratic sum for the new address.
 Open Addressing
“Quadratic Probe”
Increase by two
Fore each probe!
Probe*Probe
Probe Collision & New Increment Next
Number Location Increment Address Factor Increment
1 1 1*1=1 2 1 1
2 2 2*2=4 6 3+ +4
3 6 3*3=9 15 5 9
+
4 15 4*4=16 31 7 16
5 31 5*5=25 56 9 25
6 56 6*6=36 92 11 36
7 92 7*7=49 41 13 49
 Open Addressing – Double Hashing
“Pseudorandom Collision Resolution”
In this methot, rather than using an arithmetic probe functions,
the address is rehashed.

y = ((ax + c) mod listSize) +1

y = ((3.2 +(-1) mod 307) +1
y=6
 Open Addressing – Double Hashing
“Key Offset Collision Resolution”

• Key offset is another double hashing method and, produces

different collision paths for different keys.
• Key offset calculates the new address as a function of the old
address and the key.
 Open Addressing – Double Hashing
“Key Offset Collision Resolution”
offSet = [key / listSize]
address = ((offSet + old address) mod listSize) + 1
offSet = [166702 / 307] = 543
1. Probe : address = ((543 + 2) mod 307) + 1 = 239
2. Probe : address = ((543 + 239) mod 307) + 1 = 169

Home
Key Address Key Offset Probe 1 Probe 2

166702 2 543 239 169

572556 2 1865 26 50

67234 2 219 222 135

 Collision Resolution
Open Addressing Resolution

• A major disadvantage to open addressing is that each

collision resolution increases the probability of future

collisions!
 Collision Resolution
Linked List Resolution
Link head pointer.

A link list is an ordered

collection of data in which
each element contains the
location of the next element.
 Collision Resolution
Bucket Hashing Resolution
 Hw #2

1. Create an array which includes the random integer

100 numbers between 0 and 150.
2. This should be an unordered list.
1. Use Linear sentinel search algorithm and find the target
value in the array.
2. Use the Probability search algorithm and find the target
value in the array.
3. Create an ordered list which includes the 100
numbers between 0 and 150.
1. Use ordered list search algorithm and find the target value in
the array.
2. Use binary search algorithm and find the target value in the
array.
 Hw #2

– Run the each search algorithm 10 times and report

these performance values for each of them.
– Write your comments about the result table.

Sentinel Probability Ordered Binary

Search Search Search Search
Number of Completed Searches
Number of Successful Searches
Avarage number of tests per search