GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
CHAPTER 1
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES : LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Kinetic Molecular Forces of Liquids and Solids
Properties of Liquids and Intermolecular Forces
Structure and Properties of Water
Types and Properties of solids
Phase Changes
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
A. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
OF SOLIDS
AND LIQUIDS
What are Intermolecular Forces?
• Intermolecular forces, often
abbreviated to IMF, are the attractive
and repulsive forces that arise between
the molecules of a substance.
IMPORTANCE:
• Intermolecular forces are
responsible for most of the physical
and chemical properties/
characteristics of matter.
• Intermolecular forces are
responsible for the condensed
states of matter.
Physical properties
These are characteristics of matter that don't change its chemical
composition. Examples include:
o Density: The mass of an object divided by its volume
o Color: Determined by how light is absorbed, reflected, or
transmitted
o Hardness: A measure of how resistant matter is to scratching or
deformation
o Melting and boiling points: Determined by the forces of
attraction between matter particles
o Electrical conductivity: A physical property of matter
Chemical properties are characteristics of a substance
that can be observed when it undergoes a chemical
change. These properties include:
•Reactivity: The ability of a substance to interact
chemically with another substance.
•Flammability: The ability of a substance to
burn. When matter burns, it combines with oxygen and
changes into different substances.
•Toxicity: A chemical property of matter.
•Oxidation states: A chemical property of matter.
•Coordination number: A chemical property of
matter.
•Heat of combustion: A chemical property of matter.
•Acidity: A chemical property of matter.
A. BOILING POINT
Boiling is the process by which a liquid
turns into a vapor when it is heated to
its boiling point. The change from a
liquid phase to a gaseous phase occurs
when the vapor pressure of the liquid
is equal to the atmospheric pressure
exerted on the liquid.
2. VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor
pressure is the pressure exerted by a
vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with
its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a
given temperature in a closed system.
2. VAPOR PRESSURE
3.VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of
a fluid’s resistance to
flow. It is influenced by the
internal friction between
molecules in the liquid.
High-viscosity fluids resist
flow and have a thick
consistency, like honey or
molasses, while low-viscosity
fluids flow more easily and
have a thinner consistency,
like water.
4. SURFACE TENSION
• Surface tension is the result of
electrostatic forces between the liquid
molecules, which work to minimize the
liquid's surface area.
•
Surface tension is the cohesion between
molecules at the surface of the liquid that
makes it have a strong surface.
Capillary action
is the phenomenon in which liquids rise up
into a narrow tube called a capillary. It
results when cohesive forces, the
intermolecular forces in the liquid, are
weaker than adhesive forces, the
attraction between a liquid and the surface
of the capillary. The shape of the meniscus
, the upper surface of a liquid in a tube,
also reflects the balance between adhesive
Intermolecular forces also cause a
phenomenon called capillary action
,which is the tendency of a polar
liquid to rise against gravity into a
small-diameter tube (a capillary),
When a glass capillary is is placed in
liquid water, water rises up into the
capillary.
The height to which the water rises
depends on the diameter of the
tube and the temperature of the
water but not on the angle at which
the tube enters the water. The
smaller the diameter, the higher the
liquid rises .
5. SOLUBILITY
Solubility is a physical property. It
refers to the ability of a solute
(usually a solid) to dissolve in a
solvent (usually a liquid). It's
physical because it doesn't change
the chemical identity of the
substances involved.
How do intermolecular forces affect
solubility?
The extent
dissolve in to which one substance will
another is
Determined
types and by several factors, including the
relative
that may strengths of intermolecular forces
exist
Between
molecules.the substances atoms, ions, or
A. SOLUBILITY
> is the maximum quantity of solute
that can dissolve in a certain
quantity of solvent or quantity of
solution at a specified
temperature or pressure.
SOLUBILITY
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BASED ON
AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED SOLUTE
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BASED ON
AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED SOLUTE
1. UNSATURATED SOLUTION
> The minimum amount of solute present
in a given amount of solvent at room
temperature
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BASED ON
AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED SOLUTE
2. SATURATED SOLUTION
> The maximum amount of solute that
can dissolved
in a given amount of solvent at room
temperature.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BASED ON
AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED SOLUTE
3. SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
> The maximum amount of solute
present in a given
amount of solvent at an elevated
temperature.
When a chemical reaction
happens, energy is transferred to
or from the surroundings. When
energy is transferred to the
surroundings, this is called an
exothermic reaction and usually
feels hot. When energy is taken
in from the surroundings, this is
called an endothermic reaction
and usually feel cold
FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
1. NATURE OF SOLUTE AND
SOLVENTS
2. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
A. SOLUBILITY OF GAS IN LIQUID
SOLUBILITY OF GAS IN
LIQUID INCREASES WITH
A DECREASE IN
TEMPERATURE AND
DECREASE WITH AN
INCREASE IN
TEMPERATURE
B. SOLUBILITY OF SOLID IN LIQUID
> The solubility of solids increase in
temperature for endothermic
reactions
while it decreases for exothermic
reactions.
SOLUBILITY CURVE
A graphical relationship
between the solubility
and temperature.
SOLUTION
B. EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION
OF
SOLUTION
The concentration of a solution
is a measure of the amount of
solute that has been dissolved in a
given amount of solvent or
solution
Ways of expressing concentration of
solution
1. Percentage by mass
,
2. Percentage by volume
3.Percentage by mass
4.Parts Per Million
5. Molality (m)
Example:
Example:
5. Molarity ( M )
Example:
Example:
Example:
• 1. Given that the density of solution of 5g of toluene and 225 g of
benzene is 1.0876 g/mL. Calculate the molarity and molality of the
solution and mass percentage by mass.
• 2. A solution containing equal masses of glycerol C3H8O3 and water
has a density 0f 1.10g/mL .Calculate the molarity and molality of the
solution.
Example:
• What is the molarity of 45.3 g NaNO3 dissolved in water to produce
225 mL solution ?
• What mass of BaCl2 is needed to dissolve in 1,2 kg of water to
prepare 0.500 molal BaCl2 solution
Example
A. Calculate the molarity of the following solution:
1. 0.2 moles NaOH in 100 mL solution
2. 5.0g CaCl2 in 250 mL solution
B. Calculate the number of moles of solute in each of 100 mL of 0.5 M
C. Calculate the mass of solute needed to prepare 500 mL of 2M HCl
( molar mass = 34.45g/mol)
Example
A. Calculate the molarity of the following solution:
1. 0.2 moles NaOH in 100 mL solution
2. 5.0g CaCl2 in 250 mL solution
B. Calculate the number of moles of solute in each of 100 mL of 0.5 M
C. Calculate the mass of solute needed to prepare 500 mL of 2M HCl
( molar mass = 34.45g/mol)
CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
Solutions
The formation of solutions
Solubility and Solubility Curve
Concentrations of solutions
Stoichiometry Involving solutions PT2: LAB.1
Electrical properties of solutions
Colligative properties of solutions
STOICHIOMETRY INVOLVING
SOLUTIONS
A. Stoichiometry involving
solutions
3NaOH(aq) + Al (NO3)3 3NaNO3(aq) + Al(OH)3(aq)
1.What volume of 0.300M NaOH is required to react
completely with 2.50 g Al(NO3)3 . Al(NO3)3=213g/mole
Al( OH)3= 78g/mole
2. Using the same number 1.what mass of Al(OH)3 is
produced from 25 mL of 1M Al(NO3)3 ?
Example:
• 24.7 mL of a HCl solution is completely neutralized by 35.8 mL of a
0.25M NaOH solution. What is the concentration of the original HCl
solution.
• What volume of a 0.15M Ba(OH)2 solution is required to completely
neutralized 45 mL of a 0.29M HNO3 solution.
B. DILUTION- Dilution is the addition of solvent, which
decreases the concentration of the solute in the solution.
Example:
TASK:
A. Prepare 250 mL with a 0.52 M from HCl solution.
Assay:
density= 1.26 g/cm3
purity= 36 percent
Mw= 36.5 g/mol
TASK:
2. Prepare 150mL of 0.2 M solution from Sulfuric acid ,H2SO4
Assay:
density/ specific gravity= 1.84 g/cm3
purity/ percentage= 98%
MM/MW= 98 g/mol
3. What volume of NaCl solution is needed to make 30 mL of 0.4M
NaCl solution.
TASK:
3. Prepare 150 mL with 1M H2SO4 from the stock solution with a
density 0f 1.84 g/mL, purity of 98% and MW of 98g/mol.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
•What is the molecular mass of an
organic compound if 16.00 g of the
compound is dissolved in 225.0 g of
carbon tetrachloride raises the
boiling point to 85.36 °C?
• A solution of 10.0 g of a nonvolatile,
nondissociating compound dissolved in 0.200 kg
of benzene boils at 81.2 °C. Calculate the
molecular weight of the compound.
A SOLUTION OF 1.04g of unknown
solute A ,in 25.3 g of benzene has a
boiling point of 80.78 Degrees
Celsius. Under the same condition,
pure benzene boiled at 80.06
degrees Celsius. Calculate the
molecular weight of solute A.
Kb of benzene is 2.53 degrees
Celsius/ molal
5.00g of an organic solid is dissolved in 100.g of benzene .The boiling temperature of this solution is 82.42 degrees
Celsius. The boiling temperature of pure benzene is 80.1 degrees Celsius. Kb ia 2.53 degrees Celsius/molal. What is the
molecular weight of the unknown compound?
A 26.4 G SAMPLE OF AN UNKNOWN
COMPOUND IS DISSOLVED IN
75GRAMS.THE RESULTING SOLUTION
HAS A FREEZING POINT OF -5.10
DEGREES CELSIUS.
What is the molar mass of the
unknown substance? The freezing
constant of water is 1.86
degrees/molal
CHAPTER 3
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes
First Law of Thermodynamics
Enthalpy of a Chemical Reactions
Thermochemical Equations
Calorimetry
Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reactions
CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Rate of Reactions
The reaction Process
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
Rate Law
Order of Reaction
CHAPTER 5
CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
Spontaneous Processes
Entropy
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Gibb’s Free and Chemical Equilibrium
CHAPTER 6
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
The equilibrium conditions
Equilibrium constant and reaction quotient expression
Predicting the direction of a reaction
Significance of the equilibrium constant
Le Chatelier’s Principle
CHAPTER 7
ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SALT EQUILIBRIA
Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
The Acid-Base Properties of water
The pH scale
Strength of acids and bases
Common Ion Effect
Buffers
Solubility Equilibria
CHAPTER 8
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
REDOX REACTION
Galvanic Cells
Standard Reduction Potential
Spontaneous
Redox Reaction
Batteries
Corrosion
Electrolysis
