INTRODUCTION TO

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
 Air Pollution
 Air
– Necessary for Existence
– Colorless, odorless mixture of gases
– Quality of air varies in different environments
– Urban vs. Rural
– Emission of Particulate Matter from:
 Anthropogenic (Man-made) Sources (Industry)
 Natural Sources (Volcanoes, Forest Fires, Pollen)
 Composition of Air
 Five Substances

– Nitrogen (N2) 78.1%(v/v)

– Oxygen (O2) 21.0%(v/v)

– Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.033%(v/v)

– Argon (Ar) 0.93%(v/v)

– Water (H2O) varies

– Other trace components 0.007%(v/v)

 POLLUTION
 Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our
surroundings that have harmful effects on plants,
animals and human beings.

 This occurs when only short-term economic gains are

made at the cost of the long-term ecological benefits
for humanity.

 No natural phenomenon has led to greater ecological

changes than have been made by mankind.

 During the last few decades we have contaminated our

air, water and land on which life itself depends with a
variety of waste products.
 Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances
present in greater than natural abundance produced due
to human activity, which have a detrimental effect on
our environment.

 The nature and concentration of a pollutant determines

the severity of detrimental effects on human health. An
average human requires about 12 kg of air each day,
which is nearly 12 to15 times greater than the amount of
food we eat.

 Thus even a small concentration of pollutants in the air

becomes more significant in comparison to the similar
levels present in food.
 Pollutants that enter water have the ability to spread to distant
places especially in the marine ecosystem.

From an ecological perspective pollutants can be classified as

follows:
 Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly
broken down by natural processes. Eg: domestic sewage, discarded
vegetables, etc.

 Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants : Pollutants that

remain in the environment for many years in an unchanged condition
and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and most plastics.

 Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by

natural processes. Once they are released into the environment they
are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg: toxic
elements like lead or mercury.
 What is Air Pollution?
 Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable
solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are
harmful to human health and the environment.
 Air may get polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes,
which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by
forest fires that are occasionally naturally caused by
lightning.
 However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally
occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a
short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric
change.
 Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are
produced both by natural events (for example, dust storms and volcanic
eruptions) and human activities (emission from vehicles, industries,
etc.). These are called primary pollutants.

 There are five primary pollutants that together contribute about 90

percent of the global air pollution. These are carbon oxides (CO and
CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds (mostly
hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter.

 Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical

reactions take place among the primary pollutants are called secondary
pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.

 Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and toxic gas produced

when organic materials such as natural gas, coal or wood are
incompletely burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest source of
carbon monoxide. The number of vehicles has been increasing over the
years all over the world. Vehicles are also poorly maintained and
several have inadequate pollution control equipment resulting in release
of greater amounts of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is however
not a persistent pollutant.
 Natural processes can convert carbon monoxide to other compounds that
are not harmful. Therefore the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide
if no new carbon monoxide is introduced into the atmosphere. Sulfur
oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt.

 Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are

significant, as they are involved in the production of secondary air
pollutants such as ozone. Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds
consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They either evaporate from
fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn completely.

 Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when it rains and run into surface
water. They cause an oily film on the surface and do not as such cause a
serious issue until they react to form secondary pollutants. Using higher
oxygen concentrations in the fuel-air mixture and using valves to prevent
the escape of gases, fitting of catalytic converters in automobiles, are
some of the modifications that can reduce the release of hydrocarbons
into the atmosphere.
 Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke
particles from fires, bits of asbestos, dust particles and ash from
industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of
particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic (cancer causing)
effects of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industrial plants
that are dispersed into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure to
particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs and
interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases.

 Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and

is emitted by vehicles. High lead levels have been reported in the
ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the primary
source of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities.

 Pollutants are also found indoors from infiltration of polluted outside

air and from various chemicals used or produced inside buildings.
Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally harmful.
 NATURAL SOURCES OF AIR
POLLUTION
 Natural Fires - Smoke
 Volcanoes - Ash and acidic components
 Sea Spray - Sulfur
 Vegetation - Volatile organic compounds
 Bacterial Metabolism - Methane
 Dust
– Pollen
 Viruses and Bacteria
 Air pollution sources and effects
 Source type refers to natural and anthropogenic
sources as well as to additional sub classifications
within each group.
 Natural sources include windblown dust, pollen,
sea salt nuclei, volcanic ash and gases, smoke
and trace gases from forest fires, and terpenes
from forests. Anthropogenic sources cover a wide
spectrum of types. Table includes a list of major
anthropogenic air pollution sources and their
characteristics emissions.
 Classification of anthropogenic air pollution
sources
Source type Category Important Sources Typical Pollutants

Combustion Stationary Power plants, industrial Oxides of sulphur, NOX, CO,

boilers, diesel smoke,
generators, flyash, trace metal oxides
municipal or industrial
incineration,refuse
burning
Mobile Motor vehicles, air craft CO, hydrocarbons, OX, SO2
particles
Roasting Nonferrous Roasting smelting and Dust, Smoke, metal fumes (Cu,
and heating metallurgical refining operations Pb
process and Zn) oxides of sulphur
Ferrous Materials handling, ore Smoke, fumes, CO, Odours, H2S,
metallurgical sintering and pelletising, organic vapour, fluorides
coke, ovens blast
furnace,
Steel furnaces
Nonmetallic Crushed stone, gravel, Mineral and organic particulates,
minerals and sand processing, SO2,NOX dust fumes
cement,
glass,refractories
and ceramics
manufacture,
Chemicals, Petroleum Boilers, process heaters, Oxides of sulphur
Petroleum, refining catalyst regenerators, flares, hydrocarbons, NOX,
pulp and reactors, storage tanks, particulate matter, CO,
paper compressor engines aldehydes ammonia, odours
Inorganic Sulphuric acid plants, fertilizer SO2, HF, H2S, NOX, NH3,
chemicals manufacture, nitric acid and particulate matter, H PO , etc.,
3 4
ammonia plants, phosphoric
acid manufacture
Organic Plastics, paint and varnish Particulate matter,
chemicals manufacture, synthetic rubber, odours,SO2,CO,organic
rayon, insecticide, soap and intermediates, product gases
detergent manufacture, and vapours, solvent vapours,
methanol, phenol, etc., etc.,
Pulp and Digester blow system, pulp Particulate matter, odorous
paper washers, recovery furnace, sulphur compounds (H2S,
(Kraft evaporators, oxidation towers methyl mercaptan, dimethyl
process) sulphide) and SO2 (sulphite
process)
Food and Food Drying, preserving, packaging Vapours, odours, dust
Agriculture processin
g
Crop Pest and weed control Organic phosphates,
spraying chlorinated HC, arsenic, lead
and
dusting
 Types of Particulates
Term Meaning Examples

Aerosol General term for particulates suspended in Sprays from

air pressurized cans
Mist Aerosol consisting of liquid droplets Sulfuric acid mist

Dust Aerosol consisting of solid particles that Dust storm

are blown into the air or are produced from
larger particles by grinding them down
Smoke Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a Cigarette smoke,
mixture of solid and liquid particles smoke from a burning
produced by chemical reactions such as garbage
fire
Fume Generally means the same as smoke but Zinc/lead fumes
often applies specifically to aerosols
produced by condensation of hot vapors of
metals.
Plume Geometrical shape or form of the smoke
coming out a chimney
Fog Aerosol consisting of water droplets
 Major toxic metals and their effects
Element Sources Health effects
Lead Auto exhaust (from gasoline), Neurotoxin, affects blood
paints, storage batteries, pipes system, behavioral disorders,
death
Cadmium Coal, zinc mining, incineration Cardiovascular disease and
of plastic containers, refining hypertension, interference
of metals, tobacco smoke with zinc and copper
metabolism, kidney damages
Nickel Combustion of coal, diesel and Respiratory symptoms, lung
residual oils, tobacco smoke, cancer (as nickel carbonyl)
chemicals and catalysts, steel
and non ferrous alloys
manufacture
Mercury Combustion of fossil fuels, Nerve and brain damage,
evaporation from ore mining, kidney damage
exhausts from metal smelters,
chloralkali cells, paints,
pharmaceuticals
 HUMAN-CAUSED AIR POLLUTION

 Primary Pollutants - Released directly from

the source.
 Secondary Pollutants - Modified to a
hazardous form after entering the air and
mixing with other environmental
components.
– Fugitive Emissions - Do not go through
smokestack.
 Dust from human-activities.
 Conventional Pollutants
 Clean Air Act designated seven major
(conventional or criteria) pollutants for which
maximum ambient air levels are mandated.
– Sulfur Dioxide
– Nitrogen Oxides
– Carbon Oxides
– Particulate Matter
– Metals and Halogens
– Volatile Organic Compounds
 Conventional Pollutants
 Sulfur Compounds
– Natural sources of sulfur in the atmosphere
include evaporation from sea spray, volcanic
fumes, and organic compounds.
– Predominant form of anthropogenic sulfur is
sulfur-dioxide from fossil-fuel combustion.
 Annual Emissions: 114 million metric tons
 Conventional Pollutants
 Nitrogen Compounds
– Nitrogen oxides are reactive gases formed when
nitrogen is heated above 650o C in the presence
of oxygen, or when nitrogen compounds are
oxidized.
 Annual Emissions: 230 million metric tons
 Conventional Pollutants
 Carbon Oxides
– Predominant form of carbon in the air is carbon
dioxide.
 Increasing levels due to human activities.
 Annual Emissions: 7-8 billion metric tons
– Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, toxic
gas produced by incomplete fuel combustion.
 Annual Emissions: 1 billion metric tons
 Conventional Pollutants
 Particulate Matter
– Atmospheric aerosols (solid or liquid)
 Respirable particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers are
among most dangerous.
– Anthropogenic particulate emissions amount to
about 362 million metric tons annually.
 Conventional Pollutants
 Metals
– Many toxic metals occur as trace elements in fuel.
 Lead Emissions: 2 million metric tons.
– Mercury
 Bioaccumulation in aquatic ecosystems.
– Nickel, beryllium, cadmium, arsenic…
 Halogens (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine)
– CFC’s
 Conventional Pollutants
 Volatile Organic Compounds
– Organic chemicals
 Generally oxidized to CO and CO2.
 Plants are largest source.
 Photochemical Oxidants
– Products of secondary atmospheric reactions
driven by solar energy.
 Ozone formed by splitting nitrogen dioxide.
 Unconventional Pollutants
 Aesthetic Degradation
– Noise, odor, light pollution.
 Reduce quality of life.
 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

 Human Health
– EPA estimates each year 50,000 people die
prematurely from illnesses related to air
pollution.
 Likelihood of suffering ill health is related to intensity
and duration of exposure.
– Inhalation is the most common route, but absorption
through the skin and consumption via food can also occur.
 Human Health
 Bronchitis
– Persistent inflammation of airways in the lung
that causes mucus build-up and muscle spasms
constricting airways.
 Can lead to emphysema - irreversible chronic
obstructive lung disease in which airways become
permanently constricted and alveoli are damaged or
destroyed.
 Plant Pathology
 Chemical pollutants can directly damage
plants, or can cause indirect damage by
disrupting normal growth and development
patterns.
– Certain environmental factors have synergistic
effects in which the injury caused by the
combination is more than the sum of the
individual exposures.
 Pollutant levels too low to cause visible effects may still
be damaging.
 Acid Deposition
 pH and Atmospheric Acidity
– pH scale ranges from 0-14.
 7 = Neutral; <7 = Acidic; >7 = Basic
– Unpolluted rain generally has ph of 5.6.
 Carbonic acid from atmospheric CO2.
– In industrialized areas, anthropogenic acids in the air often
outweigh natural sources of acid.
 Acid Deposition
 Forest Damage
– Air pollution and depositions of atmospheric
acids are believed to be important causes of
forest destruction in many areas.
 Buildings and Monuments
– Limestone and marble are destroyed by air
pollution at an alarming rate.
– Corroding steel in reinforced concrete weakens
buildings, roads, and bridges.
 Effects of Air Pollution
 Adverse effect of air pollution may be divided into two classes
– Acute effects
– Chronic effects
– Acute effects manifest themselves immediately upon short-
term exposure to air pollutants at high concentrations.
– Chronic effects become evident only after continuous
exposure to low levels of air pollution. The Chronic effects
are very difficult to demonstrate and or consequently less
obvious.
– The chief causes of deaths and causalities were vomiting,
violent coughing, eye infections (chemical conjuctivitis),
suffocation, cardiac failure and pulmonary disorders. The
full consequences are not yet known.
– Pollutants may enter the body by a number of ways. The can
cause eye and skin irritation; certain particulates may be
swallowed as a result of internal respiratory cleaning action
or certain pollutants could even be ingested. But the primary
mode of pollutant transfer into the human body is through
the respiratory system.
 Effects of Air Pollution on Living
Organisms
 Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in
protecting us from air pollution. The hair in our nose filters out
large particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of the upper
respiratory tract captures smaller particles and dissolves some
gaseous pollutants.

 When the upper respiratory system is irritated by pollutants

sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus.
Prolonged smoking or exposure to air pollutants can overload or
breakdown these natural defenses causing or contributing to
diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.

 Elderly people, infants, pregnant women and people with heart

disease, asthma or other respiratory diseases are especially
vulnerable to air pollution.
 Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon
monoxide. Exposure to air containing even 0.001 percent of carbon
monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma and even death.
As carbon monoxide remains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a
long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood. This impairs perception and thinking, slows reflexes and causes
headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea.

 Carbon monoxide in heavy traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and

blurred vision. Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues. Chronic
exposure causes a condition similar to bronchitis. It also reacts with
water, oxygen and other material in the air to form sulfur-containing
acids. The acids can become attached to particles which when inhaled
are very corrosive to the lung. Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 can
irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis and also
increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza or
common colds.

 Suspended particles aggravate bronchitis and asthma. Exposure to

these particles over a long period of time damages lung tissue and
contributes to the development of chronic respiratory disease and
cancer. Many volatile organic compounds such as (benzene and
formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (such as lead, cadmium) can cause
mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone, a
component of photochemical smog causes coughing, chest pain,
breathlessness and irritation of the eye, nose and the throat.
 Effects on Plants

 When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores they damage the
leaves of crop plants.

 Chronic exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break down

the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive water loss and
leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. Such
exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth,
reduces nutrient uptake and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown
or drop off altogether.

 At a higher concentration of sulphur dioxide majority of the flower

buds become stiff and hard. They eventually fall from the plants,
as they are unable to flower.

 Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air pollutants from

smelters, coal burning power plants and industrial units as well as
from cars and trucks can damage trees and other plants .
 Effects of Air Pollution on Materials

 Every year air pollutants cause damage worth billions of

rupees.

 Air pollutants break down exterior paint on cars and houses.

 All around the world air pollutants have discoloured

irreplaceable monuments, historic buildings, marble statues,
etc.
 Effects of Air Pollution on the Stratosphere

 The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which

works as an effective screen for ultraviolet light. This region called the
ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the surface of the earth.

 Though the ozone is present upto 60 kms its greatest density remains in
the region between 20 to 25 kms. The ozone layer does not consist of
solely ozone but a mixture of other common atmospheric gases. In the
most dense ozone layer there will be only one ozone molecule in 100,000
gas molecules. Therefore even small changes in the ozone concentration
can produce dramatic effects of life on earth.

 The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air from the earth’s surface
upto an altitude of 50 km is the total column ozone. This is recorded in
Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the thickness of the ozone layer by an
equivalent layer of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at
sea level. This means that 100 DU=1mm of pure ozone gas at normal
temperature and pressure at sea level.
 Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms instead of two. It is produced
naturally from the photodissociation of oxygen gas molecules in the
atmosphere. The ozone thus formed is constantly broken down by
naturally occurring processes that maintain its balance in the ozone
layer.

 In the absence of pollutants the creation and breakdown of ozone are

purely governed by natural forces, but the presence of certain pollutants
can accelerate the breakdown of ozone.

 Though it was known earlier that ozone shows fluctuations in its

concentrations which may be accompanied sometimes with a little ozone
depletion, it was only in 1985 that the large scale destruction of the
ozone also called the Ozone Hole came into limelight when some British
researchers published measurements about the ozone layer.

 Soon after these findings a greater impetus was given to research on the
ozone layer, which convincingly established that CFC’s were leading to
its depletion. These CFCs (chloro-flurocarbons) are extremely stable,
non-flammable, non-toxic and harmless to handle.
 This makes them ideal for many industrial applications like aerosols, air
conditioners, refrigerators and fire extinguishers. Many cans, which give
out foams and sprays, use CFCs. (eg: perfumes, room fresheners, etc.)
CFCs are also used in making foams for mattresses and cushions,
disposable Styrofoam cups, glasses, packaging material for insulation,
cold storage etc. However their stability also gives them a long life span
in the atmosphere.

 Halons are similar in structure to the CFCs but contain bromine atoms
instead of chlorine. They are more dangerous to the ozone layer than
CFCs. Halons are used as fire extinguishing agents as they do not pose
a harm to people and equipment exposed to them during fire fighting.

 The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they
are released. As they are heavier than air they have to be carried by air
currents up to just above the lower atmosphere and then they slowly
diffuse into the upper atmosphere. This is a slow process and can take
as long as five to fifteen years.
 In the stratosphere unfiltered UV-radiation severs the chemical bonds
releasing chlorine from the rest of the CFC. This attacks the ozone
molecule resulting in its splitting into an oxygen molecule and an oxygen
atom.

 Despite the fact that CFCs are evenly distribute over the globe, the
ozone depletion is especially pronounced over the South Pole due to the
extreme weather conditions in the Antarctic atmosphere.

 The presence of the ice crystals makes the Cl-O bonding easier. The
ozone layer over countries like Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and
parts of South America is also depleted. India has signed the Montreal
Protocol in 1992, which aims to control the production and consumption
of Ozone Depleting Substances.
 Ozone Depletion-What Does it Do?

Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind.

 Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and

skin cancer are caused by increased ultra-violet radiation. It weakens
the immune system by suppressing the resistance of the whole body to
certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases
that elicit rash and parasitic diseases such as malaria introduced
through the skin.

 Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to

capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This
reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen
especially in legumes and cabbage. Plant and animal planktons are
damaged by ultra- violet radiation. In zooplanktons (microscopic
animals) the breeding period is shortened by changes in radiation. As
planktons form the basis of the marine food chain a change in their
number and species composition influences fish and shell fish
production.
 Effect on Materials:
Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to
fade faster.

 Effect on Climate:
Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming,
a phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of
certain gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and CFCs.
Observations of the earth have shown beyond doubt that atmospheric
constituents such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen
oxides and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap heat in the form of infra-red
radiation near the earth’s surface. This is known as the ‘Greenhouse
Effect’. The phenomenon is similar to what happens in a greenhouse.
The glass in a greenhouse allows solar radiation to enter which is
absorbed by the objects inside. These objects radiate heat in the form of
terrestrial radiation, which does not pass out through the glass. The heat
is therefore trapped in the greenhouse increasing the temperature inside
and ensuring the luxuriant growth of plants.
Green House Effect
There could be several adverse effects of global warming.

 With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will melt causing a rise in ocean
levels and flooding of coastal areas.

 In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives this would be catastrophic.

If the sea level rises by 3m., Maldives will disappear completely beneath
the waves.

 The rise in temperature will bring about a fall in agricultural produce.

 Changes in the distribution of solar energy can bring about changes in

habitats. A previously productive agricultural area will suffer severe
droughts while rains will fall in locations that were once deserts. This
could bring about changes in the species of natural plants, agricultural
crops, insects, livestock and micro-organisms.

 In the polar regions temperature rises caused by global warming would

have disastrous effects. Vast quantities of methane are trapped beneath
the frozen soil of Alaska. When the permafrost melts the methane that
will be released can accelerate the process of global warming.
 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

 Reducing Production
– Particulate Removal
 Remove particles physically by trapping them in a
porous mesh which allows air to pass through but
holds back solids.
– Sulfur Removal
 Switch from soft coal with a high sulfur content to low
sulfur coal.
 Change to another fuel (natural gas).
 Air Pollution Control
 Nitrogen Oxides
– Best method is to prevent creation.
 Staged Burners
 Selective Catalysts
 Hydrocarbon Control
– Use closed systems to prevent escape of
fugitive emissions.
 Control Measures for Air Pollution

Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental

approaches:

Preventive Techniques and Effluent control .

 One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper
equipment in place. This includes devices for removal of pollutants from
the flue gases though scrubbers, closed collection recovery systems
through which it is possible to collect the pollutants before they escape,
use of dry and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc.

 Providing a greater height to the stacks can help in facilitating the

discharge of pollutants as far away from the ground as possible.

 Industries should be located in places so as to minimize the effects of

pollution after considering the topography and the wind directions.

 Substitution of raw material that causes more pollution with those that
cause less pollution can be done.
 Air Pollution Control
Raw Material Changes
 If a particular raw material is responsible for causing air
pollution, use of a purer grade of raw material is often
beneficial and may reduce the formation of undesirable
impurities and byproducts or may even eliminate the
troublesome effluent. A typical example of this approach is
the use of low-sulphur fuel in place of high-sulphur ones.

 Fuel desulphurization is an attractive alternative, but

removal of sulphur from fuels such as coal posses
formidable technical problems. The most promising way of
using coal in combustion processes with minimum air
pollution appears to be through coal gasification because
sulphur and some other unwanted materials can be
removed from the gas much more readily than from solid
coal
Process Changes.
 Process changes involving new or modified techniques offer important ways of
lowering atmospheric pollutant emissions. Radical changes in chemical and
petroleum refining industries have resulted in minimizing of the release of
materials to the atmosphere. The volatile substances are recovered by
condensation and the non-condensable gases are recycled for additional
reactions. Hydrogen sulphide, which was once flared in refineries, is now
recycled and used in Claus process to recover elemental sulphur.
Equipment Modification or Replacement
 Air pollutant emissions can be minimized by suitable modification or replacement
of process equipment. For example, the unburnt carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons in the cylinders of an automobile engine, which are otherwise
emitted into the atmosphere through the tail pipe can be burnt by injecting air into
the hot exhaust manifold of the engine. Similar results can be obtained by suitable
modifications in the carburetion and ignition systems.
Cleaning of Gaseous Effluents.
 The Technology for the removal of gaseous pollutant
emissions after their formation has probably received the
maximum attention. The cleaning techniques are applied
to those cases where emissions of pollutants cannot be
prevented and pollution control equipment is necessary
to remove them from the main gas stream.

 Normally, it is more economical to install the control

equipment at the source where the pollutants are
present in the smallest possible volume in relatively high
concentrations rather than at some point away from the
source where the pollutants are diluted by other process
gases or air.
 The size of equipment is directly related to their volume being
treated, and equipment cost can be drastically reduced by
decreasing the exhaust volume. At the same time, the
equipment is more efficient for the handling of higher
concentrations of pollutants. Gas cleaning technique used
alone, or in conjunction with source correction methods form
the basis of present-day air resource management concepts.
The method are often integrated into chemical processes,
which eliminate pollutant discharges and conserve materials in
the same unit operation.
 Emission control equipment may be classified into two general
types: particulate control type, and gases and odours control
type.
 The basic mechanisms of removing particulate matter from gas
streams may be classified as: (1) Gravitational settling (2)
Centrifugal impaction (3) Inertial impaction (4) Direct
interception (5) Diffusion (6) Electro static precipitation.
 Equipment presently available, which make use of one
or more of the above mechanisms, fall into the following
five broad categories:
 Gravitational settling chambers
 Cyclone separators
 Fabric filters
 Electrostatic precipitators
 Wet collectors (scrubbers)
 Gravitational Settling Chambers
 Gravitational; settling chambers are generally used to
remove large, abrasive particles (usually > 50 m) from
gas streams. They offer low pressure drop and require
simple maintenance, but their efficiencies are quite low for
particles smaller than 50 m.
 Cyclone Separators
 Cyclone separators utilize a centrifugal force
generated by a spinning gas stream to separate
the particulate matter from the carrier gas. The
centrifugal force on particles in a spinning gas
stream is much greater than gravity
 Cyclones are effective in the removal of much
smaller particles than gravitational settling
chambers, and require much less space to handle
the same gas volumes
Cyclone Separators

CLEANED GAS OUT

GAS IN

COLLECTED FLY ASH

 Fabric Filter Systems
 Fabric filter systems typically consist of tubular bag or an
envelope, suspended or mounted in such a manner that
the collected particles fall into a hopper when dislodged
from the fabric. The structure in which the bags hang is
known as bag house. Generally, particle-laden gas enters
the bag at the bottom and passes through the fabric while
the particles are deposited on the inside of the bag.
 Fabric Filter Systems

CLEAN GAS

SHAKER MECHANISM

FILTER BAGS

DUSTY GAS IN

HOPPER LARGER PARTICLE

SEPERATION BY
CENTRIFUGAL ACTION

DUST OUTLET
Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)
 The electrostatic precipitators are extensively used in removal of
flyash from electric utility boiler emissions. The use of this
collector is growing rapidly because of the new strict air quality
codes.
 The dust-laden gas is passed between oppositely charged
conductors and it becomes ionized as the voltage applied
between the conductors is sufficiently large (30,000 to 60,000
volts dependent on electrode spacing).
 As the dust-laden gas is passed through these highly charged
electrodes, both negative and positives ions are formed, the latter
being as high as 80%. The ionized gas is further passed through
the collecting unit, which consists of a set of vertical metal
plates. Alternate plates are positively charged and earthed.
 The dust removed from the plates with the help of shaking motion
is collected in the dust hoppers.
 As the alternate plates are grounded, high intensity
electrostatic field exists between the plates. When the
charged dust particles are passed between the plates.
The deposited dust particles are removed from the
plates by giving the shaking motion to the plates with the
help of cam driven by external means
GROUNDED CYLINDERS DUST COLLECTING PLATES

CLEAN
GAS
DUST OUT
LADEN
GAS IN

COLLECTING SECTOR
CHARGED
WIRES GROUNDED

CHARGED SECTION
400V A.C RECTIFIER
60,000
DC
Advantages and disadvantages of electrostatic
precipitator
Advantages Disadvantages

1. Pressure drop and hence power 1.Relatively high initial cost and
requirement is small compared to that large space requirement
in other devices; economical and
simple to operate
2. 99+ percent efficiency obtainable very 2. Sensitive to variable particulate
small particles can be collected wet or loadings or flow rates
dry

3. Can handle both gases and mists for 3. Safeguard of operating

higher volume flow personnel from high voltage is
necessary

4. Few moving parts; can be operated at 4. Collection efficiency can

high temperatures and pressures deteriorate gradually
 Wet Scrubbers
 Wet precipitations the principal mechanisms by which
atmospheric particles are removed by nature. This idea
has been exploited by industry to develop a variety of
liquid scrubbing equipment.
 Wet collectors have a number of advantageous over dry
collectors, such as simultaneous removal of particles
and gaseous pollutants but suffer from the problems of
corrosion and liquid waste disposal.
CLEAN GAS OUT

MIST ELIMINATOR
WATER IN

SPRAYS

DIRTY GAS IN

SLURRY OUT
Advantages and disadvantages of wet collectors

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Simultaneous removal of gases 1. Relatively high-energy costs
and particulates

2. Effective performance over a 2. Problem of wet sludge disposal

wide loading range

3. Equipment occupies only a 3. Corrosion problem

moderate amount of space
compared to dry collectors such as
bag houses
4. Hazards of explosive dust-air 4. Visible wet fumes, reduction in
mixtures are reduced buoyancy

5. Indifference to the temperature 5. Very small particles (sub-micron

and moisture content of gas sizes) may not be captured

6. Corrosive gases my be
neutralized
 CLEAN AIR LEGISLATION
 Clean Air Act (1963) - First national air
pollution control.
 Clean Air Act (1970) rewrote original.
– Identified critical pollutants.
– Established ambient air quality standards.
 Primary Standards - Human health
 Secondary Standards - Materials, environment,
aesthetic and comfort.
 Clean Air Act (CAA)
 First passed in 1970
 Amended in 1977 and 1990
 Places strict limits on emission of pollutants from
– Point sources
 Factories
 Power plants
– Mobile sources
 Motorized vehicles
 Plain English guide to CAA on the web
– http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/peg_caa/pegcaain.html
 Clean Air Act
 Revision (1990) - Included provision for:
– Acid Rain
– Urban Smog
– Toxic Air Pollutants
– Ozone Protection
– Marketing Pollution Rights
– Volatile Organic Compounds
– Ambient Ozone
– Nox Emissions
 Revision (1997) - Stricter standards
 Assessing Air Quality

 EPA developed the Air Quality Index (AQI)

 Definition of AQI: There are six categories
– 0 - 50 Good
– 51 - 100 Moderate
– 101 - 150 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups
– 151 - 200 Unhealthy
– 201 - 250 Very Unhealthy
– 251 - 300 Hazardous
 Assessing Air Quality

 So AQI of 100 is the level EPA has set to

protect public health
– Example: A carbon monoxide concentration of 9
ppm would result in an AQI of 100 for CO
 AQI is set to most offending pollutant (i.e.
pollutant with largest AQI
 Air Quality - Particulates
 Another quality index for particulates is called
a particulate matter index (PM index)
– PM10 index: total concentration of all particles < 10
µm diameter
– PM2.5 index: total concentration of all particles <
2.5 µm diameter
 Units of PM index: µg/m3
– That is, micrograms of particulate matter per cubic
meter of air
– Remember, one cubic meter air = 1000 liters air
 Indoor Air Quality

 Clean Air Act focuses on outdoor

pollution.
 Much of our time spent indoors
 Quality of inside air depends on how
well inside air is exchanged for outside
air
 Pollutant concentrations typically larger
inside than outside
Indoor Air Quality
 Indoor Air Pollutants

 Pollutant  Source
– Carbon Monoxide – Faulty furnace,
cigarette smoke
– Ozone – Electric Arcing

– Formaldehyde – Furniture,
plywood/pressboard
adhesives, new carpet
– Nitrogen Oxides – Gas furnace
Water Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Water is the essential element that makes life on earth possible.

 Without water there would be no life.

 We usually take water for granted. It flows from our taps when they
are turned on. Most of us are able to bathe when we want to, swim
when we choose and water our gardens. Like good health we
ignore water when we have it.

 Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water only a tiny

fraction of this water is available to us as fresh water.

 About 97% of the total water available on earth is found in oceans

and is too salty for drinking or irrigation. The remaining 3% is fresh
water. Of this 2.997% is locked in ice caps or glaciers.
 Thus only 0.003% of the earth’ total volume of water is easily
available to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water vapour and
water in lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.

 In short if the world’s water supply were only 100 litres our usable
supply of fresh water would be only about 0.003 litres (one-half
teaspoon). This makes water a very precious resource.

 The future wars in our world may well be fought over water.

 By the middle of this century, almost twice as many people will be

trying to share the same amount of fresh water the earth has today.

 As freshwater becomes more scarce access to water resources will

be a major factor in determining the economic growth of several
countries around the world.
 Water Availability on the Planet
 Water that is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and artificial
reservoirs is called surface water.

 Water that percolates into the ground and fills the pores in soil
and rock is called groundwater.

 Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through

which ground water flows are called aquifers. Most aquifers are
replenished naturally by rainfall that percolates downward through
the soil and rock. This process is called natural recharge.
 If the withdrawal rate of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge
rate, the water table is lowered.
 Any pollutant that is discharged onto the land above is also
pulled into the aquifer and pollutes the groundwater resulting in
polluted water in the nearby wells.
 India receives most of her rainfall during the months of June to
September due to the seasonal winds and the temperature
differences between the land and the sea. These winds blow from
the opposite directions in the different seasons.

 They blow into India from the surrounding oceans during the
summer season and blow out from the subcontinent to the
oceans during the winter.

 The monsoon in India is usually reasonably stable but varies

geographically. In some years the commencement of the rains
may be delayed considerably over the entire country or a part of
it. The rains may also terminate earlier than usual. They may be
heavier than usual over one part than over another.
 All these may cause local floods or drought.
 However in India even areas that receive adequate rainfall during
the monsoon suffer from water shortages in the post monsoon
period due to lack of storage facilities.

When the quality or composition of water changes directly or

indirectly as a result of man’s activities such that it becomes unfit
for any purpose it is said to be polluted.

Point sources of pollution: When a source of pollution can be readily

identified because it has a definite source and place where it enters
the water it is said to come from a point source. Eg. Municipal and
Industrial Discharge Pipes.

When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified, such as

agricultural runoff, acid rain, etc, they are said to be non-point
sources of pollution.
Sources of Pollution
 Causes of Water Pollution
There are several classes of common water pollutants.

 These are disease-causing agents (pathogens) which include

bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water
from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.

 Human wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform

bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis.
These bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of humans
where they are responsible for some food digestion and for the
production of vitamin K. These bacteria are not harmful in low
numbers.

 Large amounts of human waste in water, increases the number of

these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases.
 Other potentially harmful bacteria from human wastes may also be
present in smaller numbers. Thus the greater the amount of wastes
in the water the greater are the chances of contracting diseases
from them.

 Another category of water pollutants is oxygen depleting wastes.

These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic
(oxygen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteria use up
the oxygen present in water to degrade these wastes. In the process
this degrades water quality.

 The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of

organic matter is called the biological oxygen demand (BOD). The
amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution. If
too much organic matter is added to the water all the available
oxygen is used up. This causes fish and other forms of oxygen
dependent aquatic life to die. Thus anaerobic bacteria (those that do
not require oxygen) begin to break down the wastes. Their
anaerobic respiration produces chemicals that have a foul odour
and an unpleasant taste that is harmful to human health.
 A third class of pollutants are inorganic plant nutrients. These are
water soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth
of algae and other aquatic plants. The excessive growth of algae
and aquatic plants due to added nutrients is called eutrophication.
They may interfere with the use of the water by clogging water
intake pipes, changing the taste and odour of water and cause a
buildup of organic matter. As the organic matter decays, oxygen
levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species die.

 The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times

more than is actually required by the plants. The chemicals in
fertilizers and pesticides pollute soil and water. While excess
fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides cause bioaccumulation
and biomagnification. Pesticides which enter water bodies are
introduced into the aquatic food chain. They are then absorbed by
the phytoplanktons and aquatic plants. These plants are eaten by
the herbivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish
which are in turn eaten by the water birds. At each link in the food
chain these chemicals which do not pass out of the body are
accumulated and increasingly concentrated resulting in
biomagnification of these harmful substances.
 One of the effects of accumulation of high levels of pesticides
such as DDT is that birds lay eggs with shells that are much
thinner than normal. This results in the premature breaking of
these eggs, killing the chicks inside. Birds of prey such as hawks,
eagles and other fish eating birds are affected by such pollution.
Although DDT has been banned in India for agricultural use and
is to be used only for malaria eradication, it is still used in the
fields as it is cheap.

 A fourth class of water pollutants is water soluble inorganic

chemicals which are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals
such as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can
make the water unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life,
reduce crop yields and accelerate corrosion of equipment that
use this water.

 Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic

chemicals, which include oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides,
cleaning solvents, detergent and many other chemicals. These
are harmful to aquatic life and human health. They get into the
water directly from industrial activity either from improper
handling of the chemicals in industries and more often from
improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.
 Sediment of suspended matter is another class of water pollutants.
These are insoluble particles of soil and other solids that become
suspended in water. This occurs when soil is eroded from the land.
High levels of soil particles suspended in water, interferes with the
penetration of sunlight. This reduces the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants and algae disrupting the ecological balance of the
aquatic bodies. When the velocity of water in streams and rivers
decreases the suspended particles settle down at the bottom as
sediments. Excessive sediments that settle down destroys feeding
and spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial
reservoirs etc.

 Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yet another source of water

pollution. These can be concentrated in various tissues and organs
as they pass through food chains and food webs. Ionizing radiation
emitted by such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and
genetic damage.
Hot water let out by power plants and industries that use large volumes
of water to cool the plant result in rise in temperature of the local water
bodies. Thermal pollution occurs when industry returns the heated water
to a water source. Power plants heat water to convert it into steam, to
drive the turbines that generate electricity. For efficient functioning of
the steam turbines, the steam is condensed into water after it leaves the
turbines. This condensation is done by taking water from a water body
to absorb the heat. This heated water, which is at least 15oC higher than
the normal is discharged back into the water body. The warm water not
only decreases the solubility of oxygen but changes the breeding cycles
of various aquatic organisms.
Oil is washed into surface water in runoff from roads and parking lots
which also pollutes groundwater. Leakage from underground tanks is
another source of pollution. Accidental oil spill from large transport
tankers at sea have been causing significant environmental damage.
Though accidents such as the Exxon Valdez get worldwide attention,
much more oil is released as a result of small, regular releases from
other less visible sources. Nearly two thirds of all marine oil pollution
comes from three sources: runoff from streets, improper discharge of
lubricating oil from machines or automobile crankcases and intentional
oil discharges that occur during the loading and unloading of tankers.
Oil tankers often use sea water as ballast to stabilize the ship after they
have discharged their oil. This oil contaminated water is then discharged
back into the sea when the tanker is refilled.
 Types of Water Pollutants and their
Effects
 The problem of water pollution due to discharge of
domestic and industrial wastes into aquatic systems
has already become a serious problem in the country.
Nearly 75 to 80% of India’s population is exposed to
unsafe drinking water
 To aid in a systematic discussion of water pollutants,
they have been classified into nine categories as
described below:
 Oxygen Demanding Wastes
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is essential for sustaining the plant and
animal life in any aquatic system. For example, warm-water fish
requires a minimum DO level of at least 5 mg/l (5 ppm). If the DO
level drops below the level necessary to sustain normal life, then
the aquatic system is classified as polluted
 There are four processes which actually affect the DO content in
the Water: reaeration, Photosynthesis, respiration and the
oxidation of wastes
 Reaeration is the process by which oxygen in fresh water at
saturation point decreases with an increase in temperature
 Photosynthesis requires solar radiation. During the process, the
green plants such as algae utilize carbon dioxide and the
inorganic nutrients present in the water to synthesize organic
materials and liberate oxygen. Since the process occurs only in
the presence of sunlight, the DO level in the water increase during
the day
 At night the algae and the microorganisms compete with
each other for both dissolved oxygen and organic
compounds. This bacterial and algal respiration is
responsible for the production of carbon dioxide and
subsequent depletion of dissolved oxygen.
 Combination of the three effects of respiration,
photosynthesis and reaeration results in the diurnal variation
in dissolved oxygen concentration from the values that may
far exceed saturation during the day to much lower values
or depletion at night.
 The primary cause of deoxygenation of aquatic systems is
the presence of organic substances collectively called
oxygen-demanding wastes. When these substances enter a
waterway, dissolved oxygen is consumed in their
breakdown by microorganisms, so the organic substances
can be said to exert a demand on the availability of
dissolved oxygen. The more the oxygen is required for the
breakdown of the substance, the greater will be the
deoxygenation of the waterway. Pollution results when the
oxygen demand exceeds the available oxygen.
 Although some inorganic substances are found in
the category of oxygen demanding wastes, most of
them are organic in nature. For example pollutants
in this category typically come from such sources
as sewage, food processing plants, pulp and paper
mills, tanning operations, and other organic waste
producing activities. These waste, in addition to
depleting the DO levels, produce-annoying odours,
impair domestic and livestock water supplies by
affecting its taste, odour and colour.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
 The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a
measure of the oxygen utilized by microorganisms
during the oxidation of organic materials. It is the
most widely known measure for assessing the
water pollution potential of a given organic waste.
On an average, the demand for oxygen is directly
proportional to the amount of organic waste.
Hence, BOD is a direct measure of oxygen
requirements and an indirect measure of
biodegradable organic matter
 Disease Causing Agents
 Water is a potential carrier of pathogenic microorganisms; these
pathogens are carried into the water bodies by sewage and
wastes from farms and various industries, specially tanning and
meat packaging industries. Contact with the pathogens can be
made by drinking the water or through other activities involving
contact with water.

 Some bacteria are water-borne and these include those

responsible for causing cholera, typhoid, amoebic dysentery and
gastroenteritis. Viruses are also found in water including strains,
which are responsible for polio, infectious hepatitis, and
Coxsackie’s fever. Water may also contain some animal parasites
including the round worm, and the pork tapeworm. All these types
of organisms occur in faeces, and so present in sewage. Water
also plays an indirect but vitally important role in the
transmission of disease like malaria, yellow fever, filariasis, and
schistomiasis
 Synthetic Organic Compounds
 These include pesticides, synthetic organic chemicals and
detergents. These compounds, in contrast to the organic wastes,
are not biodegradable and may persist for long periods.
 These are great concern to environmentalists because most of
the synthetic compounds are accumulative toxic poisons and
ultimately may reach objectionable levels in water or in aquatic
life.
 Plant Nutrients
 Nitrogen and phosphorous are essential elements which are
required by plants and animal for maintaining their growth and
metabolism. Small amount of nitrates and phosphates occur in
all aquatic systems and these are sufficient to maintain a
balanced biological growth.
 In wastewaters, these nutrients are present in abundance as
phosphates, nitrates, and ammonia or combined organic
nitrogen. These compounds may enter the water bodies
directly from the manufacture and use of fertilizers, and from
the processing of biological materials such as food and
textiles, or via domestic sewage treatment plants.
 When unusually large concentrations of nutrients are present
in water bodies, an excess growth of algae, known as and algal
bloom appears. This produces an unsightly green slime layer
over the surface of the water body and subsequently leads to
eutrophication.
 The slime layer reduces light penetration and restricts
atmospheric reoxygenation of the water. The dense algal
growth eventually dies and the subsequent biodegradation
produces an oxygen deficit, which can result in foul-smelling
anaerobic conditions.
 Birds feeding on the algae are killed by the powerful toxin
produced by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum,
which flourishes in the environment.
 Other problems resulting from heavy algal growth are the
clogging of filters in water treatment plants and slowing down
of stream flow by filamentous weeds can trap solid particles
carried by a stream and if they are organic, a large decaying
mass accumulates which exerts a high oxygen demand.
 High concentrations of nitrate in drinking water. When it enters
the blood stream it becomes attached to hemoglobin, forming a
complex known as methaemoglobin. As a result, the oxygen
carrying capacity of blood is reduced producing a condition
called methaemoglobin anemia or the blue baby disease. In
young babies, it is frequently fatal. The nitrates can be further
converted to amines and nitrosoamines in the human body
leading to a possible cause of gastric cancer.
 Sediments
 Sediments include soil, sand and mineral particles washed
into the aquatic environment by storms and floodwaters. In
addition, large deposits of sewage sludge, pulverized coal
ash, and various industrial solids are disposed off into
rivers and marine waters.
 The sediments erode pumping equipment and power
turbines, and have the effect of increasing turbidity and
consequently of reducing the amount of sunlight available
to green, water plants. In suspension, the solids may cause
thickening of fish gills, which may lead to eventual
asphyxiation of the fish. On the riverbed, the sediment may
interfere with spawning sites and decrease the amount of
food available for fish.
 Radioactive Substances
 Very little is known about the threshold of radiation damage
to aquatic environment from wastes of uranium and
thorium mining and refining, from nuclear power plants,
and from industrial use of radioactive materials. The
refining of uranium ore is an important source of
radioactive waste producing radionuclides of radium,
bismuth, etc. Radium is the most significant waste product
and is considered to be hazard in drinking water. Water
supplies must not contain more than 3 Pico curies per litre
of radium-226, nor more than 10 Pico curies per litre of
strontium-90
 Certain marine organisms have the capacity for
accumulating radionuclides from water. This
“biomagnifications” may cause objectionable radioactivity
in living organisms, although the radiation level in water
may be low enough to be considered safe.
Phytoplankton and fish may concentrate metal
radionuclides by factors of 102 to 105.
 Radioactive substances can enter humans with food and
water, and get accumulated in blood and certain vital
organs like the thyroid gland, the liver and bone and
muscular tissues. At present some low and medium level
wastes are sealed in containers and dumped into the
ocean. If there is any damage to, or leakage from the
containers, the nuclear wastes could escape and enter
the marine system. Then storms and ocean currents and
eventually reach coastal waters could circulate them.
 Thermal Discharges
 Power plants and industry use large quantities of water for
cooling purposes. Used coolant water is usually discharged
directly into water bodies. This could result in increase in
temperature of the water bodies with deleterious
consequences for aquatic inhabitants.
 An increase in water temperature decrease the oxygen
saturation percentage, and at the same time accelerates
the lowering of DO levels. This is because the hot water
tends to form a separate layer above the cool water due to
density differences between the two. The hot layer, which
itself holds less oxygen than the cooler layer as it is denied
contact with the atmosphere. The DO level falls rapidly due
to normal biological functions in the lower layer and may
lead to anaerobic conditions.
 Oil
 Oil is an important commodity involved in some way or
other in virtually every activity of contemporary life.
Therefore, there is obvious concern about its polluting
effects. Oil and oil wastes enter rivers and other water
bodies from several sources like industrial effluents, oil
refineries and storage tanks, automobile waste oil, and
petrochemical plants.
 Since oil is virtually insoluble in water, it floats and spreads
rapidly into a thin layer. The lighter, low molecular weight
elements, which are more toxic to organisms, soon
evaporate and others are degraded biologically but only at
slow rate. At sea, oil slicks are responsible for the deaths of
many birds. The oil penetrates the bird feathers thereby
affecting their insulation and buoyancy. Thus the birds
become colder and more susceptible to diseases, and
experience difficulty in floating and flying.
 Groundwater Pollution

While oil spills are highly visible and often get a lot of media
attention, a much greater threat to human life comes from our
groundwater being polluted which is used for drinking and
irrigation. While groundwater is easy to deplete and pollute it gets
renewed very slowly and hence must be used judiciously.
Groundwater flows are slow and not turbulent hence the
contaminants are not effectively diluted and dispersed as
compared to surface water. Moreover pumping groundwater and
treating it is very slow and costly. Hence it is extremely essential
to prevent the pollution of groundwater in the first place.
Ground water is polluted due to:
 Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated waste water and
garbage
 Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifers
 Agricultural practices such as the application of large amounts of
fertilizers and pesticides, animal feeding operations, etc. in the rural
sector
 Leakage from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and
other hazardous substances
 Leachate from landfills
 Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks
 Mining wastes.
 Severe cases of arsenic poisoning from contaminated
groundwater have been reported from West Bengal in what is
known today as the worst case of groundwater pollution.

 The School of Environmental Sciences, Jadhavpur University,

West Bengal has been involved in the task of surveying the
magnitude of the arsenic problem in West Bengal for the last
fourteen years.

 According to a report in the Down to Earth (Vol. 11, No.22),

arsenic poisoning was first noticed by K C Saha, former professor
of dermatology at the School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata when
he began to receive patients with skin lesions that resembled the
symptoms of leprosy which was in reality not leprosy. Since all
the patients were from the district of 24-Parganas, Saha along
with others began to look for the cause and found it to be arsenic
toxicity.

 Thus groundwater arsenic contamination in West Bengal was first

reported in a local daily newspaper in December 1983 when 63
people from three villages located in different districts were
identified by health officials as suffering from arsenic poisoning .
 There are two theories that have been put forth to explain this
unusually high content of arsenic in groundwater.

 One group of researchers suggested that the cause is natural while

the other stated that the cause is man-made. According to the first
hypothesis, arsenic probably originates in the Himalayan
headwaters of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers and has been
lying undisturbed beneath the surface of the region’s deltas for
thousands of years in the thick layers of fine alluvial mud across the
banks of these rivers. Most of the arsenic affected areas of West
Bengal lie in the alluvial plains.

 Most of the arsenic affected areas of West Bengal lie in the alluvial
plains formed in the quarternary period (last 1.6 million years).The
Purulia district of West Bengal is part of the extensive area of the
Precambrian era (last 570 million year) having metamorphic rocks
and granites with widespread sulphide mineralisation. Researchers
from the UK based British Geological Survey (BGS) suggested that
their position close to where the river Ganga enters Bangladesh
(geologically) may be the primary source of arsenic in the Bengal
alluvium.
 According to David Kinniburgh project leader with BGS the main
factor is time. The mud in these areas is thicker, wider and flatter
than almost anywhere else on earth. It can thus take hundreds or
thousands of years for underground water to percolate through
the mud before reaching the sea and thus it absorbs arsenic for
a long period.

 Other researchers feel that the excess amount of arsenic in

groundwater can be contributed to by the high rate of
groundwater extraction. Their hypothesis called the pyrite
oxidation thesis describes how arsenic can get mobilized in the
groundwater. In this hypothesis arsenic is assumed to be
present in certain minerals (pyrites) that are deposited within the
aquifer sediments. Due to the lowering of the water table below
the deposits, arseno-pyrite which is oxidized in a zone of the
aquifer called the Vadose zone releases arsenic as arsenic
adsorbed on iron hydroxide. During the subsequent recharge
period, iron hydroxide releases arsenic into groundwater.
 This theory is supported by two arguments.
 The first is the intensive irrigation development in West Bengal
using deep tube wells and shallow tube wells. This method of
extraction, which was exactly in the 20m to 100m below ground
level ensured, increased contribution of groundwater to irrigation.
 The other argument that supports the pyrite oxidation theory is
that prior to irrigation development and drinking water supply
schemes based on groundwater there were no reported cases of
arsenic poisoning.
 Arsenicosis or arsenic toxicity develops after two to five years of
exposure to arsenic contaminated drinking water depending on
the amount of water consumption and the arsenic concentration in
water. Initially the skin begins to darken (called diffuse melanosis)
which later leads to spotted melanosis when darkened spots begin
to appear on the chest, back and limbs. At a later stage
leucomelanosis sets in and the body begins to show black and
white spots. In the middle stage of arsenicosis the skin in parts
becomes hard and fibrous. Rough, dry skin with nodules on hands
or the soles of feet indicate severe toxicity. This can lead to the
formation of gangrene and cancer. Arsenic poisoning brings with
it other complications such as liver and spleen enlargement,
cirrhosis of the liver, diabetes, goiter and skin cancers.
 The State of India’s Rivers
 India has always had a tradition of worshipping rivers. Most of the
rivers in India are named after gods, goddesses or saints. However a
large majority of the Indian population including those who worship the
rivers do not think twice before polluting a river.

 Urbanization, industrialization, excess withdrawal of water, agricultural

run-off, improper agricultural practices and various religious and social
practices all contribute to river pollution in India.

 Every single river in India be it the Ganga, Yamuna, Cauvery or the

Krishna have their own share of problems due to pollution. Waters from
the Ganga and the Yamuna are drawn for irrigation through the
network of canals as soon as these rivers reach the plains reducing the
amount of water that flows downstream.
 What flows in the river is water from small nalas, and streams that carry
with them sewage and industrial effluents. The residual freshwater, is
unable to dilute the pollutants and the rivers turn into stinking sewers.

 In spite of data from scientifically competent studies conducted by the

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the Government has not been
able to tackle this issue. Sewage and municipal effluents account for
75% of the pollution load in rivers while the remaining 25% is from
industrial effluents and non-point pollution sources.

 In 1985, India launched the Ganga Action plan (GAP) the largest ever
river clean-up operation in the country. The plan has been criticized for,
overspending and slow progress. The GAP Phase II in 1991 included
cleaning operations for the tributaries of the Ganga, ie; the Yamuna,
Gomti and the Damodar.

 Thus the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP), Gomti Action Plan and the
Damodar Action plan were added.
 In 1995 the National River Conservation plan was launched. Under this
all the rivers in India were taken up for clean-up operations. In most of
these plans, attempts have been made to tap drains, divert sewage to
sewage treatment plants before letting out the sewage into the rivers.

 The biggest drawback of these river cleaning programs was that they
failed to pin responsibilities as to who would pay for running the treatment
facilities in the long run. With the power supply being erratic and these
plants being heavily dependent on power, most of these facilities lie
underutilized. Moreover the problem of river pollution due to agricultural
runoff has not been addressed in these programs.

 NRCP is scheduled to be completed by March 2005. The approved cost

for the plan is Rs. 772.08 crores covering 18 rivers in 10 states including
46 towns. The cost is borne entirely by the Central Government and the
Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency that co-
ordinates and monitors the plan.

 Under this plan the major activities include treating the pollution load from
sewer systems of towns and cities, setting up of Sewage treatment
plants, electric crematoria, low cost sanitation facilities, riverfront
development, afforestation and solid waste management.
 Control Measures for Preventing Water
Pollution
 While the foremost necessity is prevention, setting up effluent
treatment plants and treating waste through these can reduce the
pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be
reused for either gardening or cooling purposes wherever possible.
 A few years ago a new technology called the Root Zone Process
has been developed by Thermax. This system involves running
contaminated water through the root zones of specially designed
reed beds.
 The reeds, which are essentially wetland plants have the capacity
to absorb oxygen from the surrounding air through their stomatal
openings.
 The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem of the reeds into
the hollow roots where it enters the root zone and creates
conditions suitable for the growth of numerous bacteria and fungi.
These micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the wastewaters, so
that the water which finally comes out is clean.
 Marine Pollution
 Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to
the marine environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in
adverse effects such as hazards to human health, obstruction of
marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water. While the
causes of marine pollution may be similar to that of general water
pollution there are some very specific causes that pollute marine
waters.

 The most obvious inputs of waste is through pipes directly discharging

wastes into the sea. Very often municipal waste and sewage from
residences and hotels in coastal towns are directly discharged into the
sea.

 Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off the
land by rain, enter water courses and eventually reach the sea.
 Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the
sewage system but stormwater overflows carry these materials into
rivers and eventually into the seas.

 Ships carry many toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas,
pesticides, industrial chemicals, etc. in huge quantities sometimes to
the capacity of 350,000 tonnes. Ship accidents and accidental spillages
at sea therefore can be very damaging to the marine environment.
Shipping channels in estuaries and at the entrances to ports often
require frequent dredging to keep them open. This dredged material
that may contain heavy metals and other contaminants are often
dumped out to sea.

 Offshore oil exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to a

large extent.
 Control Measures for Oil Pollution

 Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches is a time

consuming labour intensive process.

 The natural process of emulsification of oil in the water can be

accelerated through the use of chemical dispersants which can be
sprayed on the oil. A variety of slick-lickers in which a continuous belt
of absorbent material dips through the oil slick and is passed through
rollers to extract the oil have been designed.

 Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high pressure steam or

dispersants after which the surface must be hosed down.
 Effects of Marine Pollution

 Apart from causing eutrophication a large amount of organic wastes can

also result in the development of red tides. These are phytoplankton
blooms of such intensity that the area is discolored.

 Many important commercially important marine species are also killed

due to clogging of gills or other structures. When liquid oil is spilled on
the sea it spreads over the surface of the water to form a thin film called
an oil slick.

 The rate of spreading and the thickness of the film depends on the sea
temperature and the nature of the oil.

 Oil slicks damage marine life to a large extent. Salt marshes, mangrove
swamps are likely to trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for
these ecosystems thus suffer. For salt marsh plants, oil slicks can affect
the flowering, fruiting and germination.
 If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage its water repellent properties
are lost. Water thus penetrates the plumage and displaces the air trapped
between the feathers and the skin. This air layer is necessary as it
provides buoyancy and thermal insulation. With this loss the plumage
becomes water logged and the birds may sink and drown. Even if this
does not happen loss of thermal insulation results in exhaustion of food
reserves in an attempt to maintain body temperature often followed by
death. Birds often clean their plumage by preening and in the process
consume oil which depending on its toxicity can lead to intestinal, renal or
liver failure.

 Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create anoxic conditions and result in
the production of toxic sulphides in the bottom sediment thus eliminating
the benthic fauna.

 Fish and shellfish production facilities can also be affected by oil slicks.
The most important commercial damage can however also come from
tainting which imparts an unpleasant flavour to fish and seafood and is
detectable at extremely low levels of contamination. This reduces the
market value of seafood.
 Thermal Pollution
Sources
 The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called a thermal
pollution.

 It occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses the water
for cooling purposes and then returns the heated water to its source.

 Power plants heat water to convert it into steam, to drive the turbines
that generate electricity.

 For efficient functioning of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed

into water after it leaves the turbines. This condensation is done by
taking water from a water body to absorb the heat.

 This heated water, which is at least 15oC higher than the normal is
discharged back into the water body.
Effects
 The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and
increases the metabolism of fish. This changes the ecological balance
of the river.

 Within certain limits thermal additions can promote the growth of certain
fish and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of a power plant.

 However sudden changes in temperature caused by periodic plant

shutdowns both planned and unintentional can change result in death
of these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer waters.

 Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a

temperature increase of 2 to 30C and most sponges, mollusks and
crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 370C.

 This results in a change in the diversity of fauna as only those species

that can live in warmer water survive.
Control Measures
 Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through
a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser.

 The heat is dissipated into the air and the water can then be discharged
into the river or pumped back to the plant for reuse as cooling water.

 There are several ways in which thermal pollution can be reduced. One
method is to construct a large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into
one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from the other end. The
heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere.
 A second method is to use a cooling tower. These structures take up
less land area than the ponds. Here most of the heat transfer occurs
through evaporation. Here warm waters coming from the condenser is
sprayed downward over vertical sheets or baffles where the water flows
in thin films.

 Cool air enters the tower through the water inlet that encircles the base
of the tower and rises upwards causing evaporative cooling.

 A natural draft is maintained because of the density difference between

the cool air outside and the warmer air inside the tower. The waste heat
is dissipated into the atmosphere about 100 m above the base of the
tower.

 The cooled water is collected at the floor of the tower and recycled back
to the power plant condensers.

 The disadvantage in both these methods is however that large amounts

of water are lost by evaporation.
 Soil Pollution
 We can no more manufacture a soil with a tank of chemicals than we
can invent a rain forest or produce a single bird.

 We may enhance the soil by helping its processes along, but we can
never recreate what we destroy.

 The soil is a resource for which there is no substitute. (Environmental

historian Donald Worster reminds us that fertilizers are not a substitute
for fertile soil).

 Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of a mixture of minerals,

organic material, living organisms, air and water that together support
the growth of plant life. Several factors contribute to the formation of
soil from the parent material.
 This includes mechanical weathering of rocks due to temperature
changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical
weathering activities and lichens.

 Climate and time are also important in the development of soils.

Extremely dry or cold climates develop soils very slowly while humid and
warm climates develop them more rapidly.

 Under ideal climatic conditions soft parent material may develop into a
centimeter of soil within 15 years. Under poor climatic conditions a hard
parent material may require hundreds of years to develop into soil.
Mature soils are arranged in a series of zones called soil horizons. Each
horizon has a distinct texture and composition that varies with different
types of soils.

 A cross sectional view of the horizons in a soil is called a soil profile. The
top layer or the surface litter layer called the O horizon consists mostly of
freshly fallen and partially decomposed leaves, twigs, animal waste,
fungi and other organic materials. Normally it is brown or black. The
uppermost layer of the soil called the A horizon consists of partially
decomposed organic matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral
particles. It is usually darker and looser than the deeper layers.
 The roots of most plants are found in these two upper layers. As long as
these layers are anchored by vegetation soil stores water and releases it
in a trickle throughout the year instead of in a force like a flood. These
two top layers also contain a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms
and other small insects that form complex food webs in the soil that help
recycle soil nutrients and contribute to soil fertility. The B horizon often
called the subsoil contains less organic material and fewer organisms
than the A horizon.

 The area below the subsoil is called the C horizon and consists of
weathered parent material.

 This parent material does not contain any organic materials. The
chemical composition of the C-horizon helps to determine the pH of the
soil and also influences the soil’s rate of water absorption and retention.
Soils vary in their content of clay (very fine particles), silt (fine particles),
sand (medium size particles) and gravel (coarse to very coarse particles).
The relative amounts of the different sizes and types of mineral particles
determine soiltexture. Soils with approximately equal mixtures of clay,
sand, silt and humus are called loams.
 Causes of Soil Degradation

Erosion
 Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil
from one place to another. While erosion is a natural process often
caused by wind and flowing water it is greatly accelerated by human
activities such as farming, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burning
of grass cover and deforestation. Loss of the topsoil makes a soil less
fertile and reduces its water holding capacity. The topsoil, which is
washed away, also contributes to water pollution clogging lakes,
increasing turbidity of the water and also leads to loss of aquatic life.

 For one inch of topsoil to be formed it normally requires 200-1000 years

depending upon the climate and soil type. Thus if the topsoil erodes
faster than it is formed the soil becomes a non-renewable resource. Thus
it is essential that proper soil conservation measures are used to
minimize the loss of top soil. There are several techniques that can
protect soil from erosion. Today both water and soil are conserved
through integrated treatment methods. Some of the most commonly
employed methods include the two types of treatment that are generally
used
 Area Treatment Which Involves Treating the Land
 Drainage line treatment which involves treating the natural water courses
(nalas) continuous contour trenches can be used to enhance infiltration
of water reduce the runoff and check soil erosion. These are actually
shallow trenches dug across the slope of the land and along the contour
lines basically for the purpose of soil and water conservation. They are
most effective on gentle slopes and in areas of low to medium rainfall.
These bunds are stabilized by fast growing tree species and grasses. In
areas of steep slopes where the bunds are not possible, continuous
contour benches (CCBs) made of stones are used for the same purpose.
Gradonies can also be used to convert wastelands into agricultural lands.
In this narrow trenches with bunds on the downstream side are built
along contours in the upper reaches of the catchment to collect run-off
and to conserve moisture from the trees or tree crops. The area between
the two bunds is use for cultivation of crops after development of fertile
soil cover.

Some of the ways in which this can be achieved are:

Live check dams which barriers created by planting grass, shrubs and
trees across the gullies can be used for this purpose.
A bund constructed out of stones across the stream can also be used for
conserving soil and water.
 Area Treatment
Purpose Treatment measure Effect

Reduces the impact of Develop vegetative Minimum displacement

rain drops on soils cover on the non and disturbance of soil
arable land particles

Infiltration of water Apply water In situ soil and moisture

where it falls infiltration measures conservation
on the area
Minimum surface runoff Store surplus rain Increased soil moisture
water by constructing in the area, facilitate
bunds, ponds in the ground water recharge
area
Ridge to valley Treat the upper Economically viable,
sequencing catchment first and less risk of damage and
then proceed towards longer life of structures
the outlet of the lower catchments
 Drainage Line Treatment

Purpose Treatment Measure Effect

Stop further deepening of Plug the gullies at Stops erosion, recharges

gullies and retain formation groundwater at the upper
sediment run-off level.

Reduce run-off velocity, Create temporary Delayed flow and

pass cleaner water to the barriers in nalas increased groundwater
downstream side recharge

Minimum sedimentation Use various methods to

in the storage basins treat the catchments

Low construction cost Use local material and Structures are locally
skills for constructing maintained
the structures
 An Earthen checkbund is constructed out of local soil
across the stream to check soil erosion and flow of water.

 A Gabion structure is a bund constructed of stone and

wrapped in galvanized chainlink.

 A Gabion structure with ferrocement impervious

barrier has a one inch thick impervious wall of ferrocement
at the center of the structure which goes below the ground
level upto the hard strata. This ferrocement partition
supported by the gabion portion is able to retain the water
and withstand the force of the runoff water.

 An Underground bandhara is an underground structure

across a nalla bed to function as a barrier to check the
ground water movement.
 Concept of Soil remediation

Protection of fertile soil is soil remediation.

 Waste water is treated adequately before land
disposal.
 Tree plantation at proper places is to be controlled
to prevent soil erosion.
 Natural fertilizers and biological agents for pest
management is used.
 Plough or mix the soil to improve aeration,
porosity and permeability.
 Water logging and salinity conditions is avoided.
 Grass only on polluted lands is cultivated.
 Noise Pollution
 Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water but
it is a pollution problem that affects human health and can contribute to
a general deterioration of environmental quality.

 Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound.

 Not all sound is noise.

 What may be considered as music to one person may be noise to

another.

 It is not a substance that can accumulate in the environment like most

other pollutants.

 Sound is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’.

 Decibel Levels of Common Sounds

dB Environmental Condition
0 Threshold of hearing
10 Rustle of leaves
20 Broadcasting studio
30 Bedroom at night
40 Library
50 Quiet office
60 Conversational speech (at 1m)
70 Average radio
74 Light traffic noise
90 Subway train
100 Symphony orchestra
110 Rock band
120 Aircraft takeoff
146 Threshold of pain
 Measurement of noise levels

 It is measured in decibels.
 Also in Noise exposure index (NEI)
 NEI = t/T
 Where t is total time of exposure at a particular noise
level.
 T is total time of exposure permitted at that level.
 Effects of Noise Pollution on Physical Health
 The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage
to the ear and the temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a
temporary threshold shift (TTS).

 People suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak sounds.
However hearing ability is usually recovered within a month of
exposure.

 In Maharashtra people living in close vicinity of Ganesh mandals that

play blaring music for ten days of the Ganesh festival are usually
known to suffer from this phenomenon.
 Permanent loss, usually called noise induced permanent threshold shift
(NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no
recovery.

 Below a sound level of 80 dBA hearing loss does not occur at all.
However temporary effects are noticed at sound levels between 80 and
130 dBA.

 About 50 percent of the people exposed to 95 dBA sound levels at work

will develop NIPTS and most people exposed to more than 105 dBA will
experience permanent hearing loss to some degree.

 A sound level of 150 dBA or more can physically rupture the human
eardrum.

 The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the

intensity of the noise. For example, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA
sound level can produce a TTS that may last for about one day. However
in factories with noisy machinery workers are subjected to high sound
levels for several hours a day.
 Exposure to 95 dBA for 8 hours everyday for over a period of 10 years
may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS. In addition to hearing losses
excessive sound levels can cause harmful effects on the circulatory
system by raising blood pressure and altering pulse rates.

Effects of Noise Pollution on Mental Health

 Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as
irritability, anxiety and stress.Lack of concentration and mental fatigue
are significant health effects of noise.

 It has been observed that the performance of school children is poor in

comprehension tasks when schools are situated in busy areas of a city
and suffer from noise pollution.
 As noise interferes with normal auditory communication, it may mask
auditory warning signals and hence increases the rate of accidents
especially in industries.

 It can also lead to lowered worker efficiency and productivity and higher
accident rates on the job.

 Thus noise is just more than a mere nuisance or annoyance. It

definitely affects the quality of life.

 It is thus important to ensure mitigation or control of noise pollution.

Ambient Noise Levels dB

Zone Day-time Night-time

Silent Zone 50 40
Residential Zone 55 45
Commercial Zone 65 55
Industrial Zone 70 70
 Noise Control Techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be

controlled:

 Reduce noise at the source, block the path of noise, increase the path
length and protect the recipient.

 In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the

source.

 Source reduction can be done by effectively muffling vehicles and

machinery to reduce the noise. In industries noise reduction can be done
by using rigid sealed enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic
absorbing material. Isolating machines and their enclosures from the
floor using special spring mounts or absorbent mounts and pads and
using flexible couplings for interior pipelines also contribute to reducing
noise pollution at the source.
 However one of the best methods of noise source reduction is regular and
thorough maintenance of operating machinery . Noise levels at
construction sites can be controlled using proper construction planning
and scheduling techniques. Locating noisy air compressors and other
equipment away from the site boundary along with creation of temporary
barriers to physically block the noise can help contribute to reducing noise
pollution.

 Most of the vehicular noise comes from movement of the vehicle tires on
the pavement and wind resistance. However poorly maintained vehicles
can add to the noise levels.

 Traffic volume and speed also have significant effects on the overall
sound. For example doubling the speed increases the sound levels by
about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic volume (number of vehicles per hour)
increases sound levels by about 3 dBA. A smooth flow of traffic also
causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway
planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise.
 Establishing lower speed limits for highways that pass through
residential areas, limiting traffic volume and providing alternative routes
for truck traffic are effective noise control measures.

 The path of traffic noise can also be blocked by construction of vertical

barriers alongside the highway.

 Planting of trees around houses can also act as effective noise barriers.

 In industries different types of absorptive material can be used to

control interior noise. Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls,
ceilings and floors can decrease indoor noise levels significantly.
 Sound levels drop significantly with increasing distance from the noise
source. Increasing the path length between the source and the recipient
offers a passive means of control.

 Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the location of airports make

use of the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels. Use of earplugs
and earmuffs can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise
levels. Specially designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level reaching
the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA.

 However very often workers tend not to wear them on a regular basis
despite company requirements for their use.
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
Classification of Solid Waste
Urban waste: Includes domestic, muncipal and industrial
waste produts
Mineral waste: Includes waste from mining and mineral
processing.
Agricultural waste: Includes waste from farming, animals and
crops.

Industrial waste classified into process and non process

waste.

Process waste: complex and specific to industries.

 Rubber tyre industry generates rubber waste
 Plastic producing firm plastic waste.
Non process waste: Includes packaging, office and cafeteria
wastes similar to domestic and commercial wastes.
 Characteristics of Municipal Solid
Waste
 Solid wastes are grouped or classified in several different ways. These
different classifications are necessary to address the complex challenges of
solid waste management in an effective manner.

 The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is generally used to describe most of
the non-hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires
routine collection and transport to a processing or disposal site.

 Sources of MSW include private homes, commercial establishments and

institutions as well as industrial facilities.

 However MSW does not include wastes from industrial processes,

construction and demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining wastes or
agricultural wastes.

 Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food
waste such as vegetable and meat material, left over food, egg shells, etc
which is classified as wet garbage as well as paper, plastic, tetrapacks,
plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes, aluminum foil, metal
items, wood pieces, etc. which is classified as dry garbage.
 Control Measures of Urban and
Industrial
Wastes
An integrated waste management strategy includes three main
components:
1. Source reduction
2. Recycling
3. Disposal

 Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste.

This can be done by using less material when making a product, reuse
of products on site, designing products or packaging to reduce their
quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary
items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying
disposable items and also avoid asking for plastic carry bags.
 Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have
some economic value. Recycling has readily visible benefits such as
conservation of resources reduction in energy used during manufacture
and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and
steel can be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are
recyclable. Mining of new aluminum is expensive and hence recycled
aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant role in the
aluminum industry.

 Paper recycling can also help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees
to make one ton of paper.

 Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacture new

glass by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the
glassmaking process thus conserving energy and reducing air pollution.

 However even if recycling is a viable alternative, it presents several

problems. The problems associated with recycling are either technical or
economical.
 Plastics are difficult to recycle because of the different types of polymer
resins used in their production. Since each type has its own chemical
makeup different plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus separation
of different plastics before recycling is necessary.

 Similarly in recycled paper the fibers are weakened and it is difficult to

control the colour of the recycled product. Recycled paper is banned for
use in food containers to prevent the possibility of contamination. It very
often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than scrap paper.
Collection, sorting and transport account for about 90 percent of the
cost of paper recycling.

 The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are

generally more expensive than making paper from virgin wood or
cellulose fibers.

 Very often thus recycled paper is more expensive than virgin paper.
However as technology improves the cost will come down.
Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill
or through incineration.
A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that
is lined with an impermeable membrane.

The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that

distinguish it from an open dump are:
 Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a
carefully prescribed manner.
 The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy
machinery.
 The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil.

• The problem with older landfills are associated with groundwater

pollution.

• Pollutants seeping out from the bottom of a sanitary landfill (leachates)

very often percolate down to the groundwater aquifer no matter how
thick the underlying soil layer.
 Today it is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection
systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect
groundwater pollution.

 The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the
action of microorganisms.

 At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was
present in the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms.

 The anerobes take over producing methane which is poisonous and

highly explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between 5 and 15
percent. The movement of gas can be controlled by providing
impermeable barriers in the landfill. A venting system to collect the
blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be safely diluted and
dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the
design of sanitary landfills.
 Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste
disposal, it has become increasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling
sites that are within economic hauling distance and very often citizens
do not want landfills in their vicinity.

 Another reason is that no matter how well engineered the design and
operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental
damage in the form of leakage of leachates.

 Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid waste in a

properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating
conditions.

 Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of

the waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water,
which are released into the atmosphere. This chemical reaction called
oxidation results in the release of heat.

 For complete oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate

volumes of air at a temperature of about 815o C for about one hour.
 Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent
in volume and 75 percent in weight. The risks of incineration however
involve airquality problems and toxicity and disposal of the fly and
bottom ash produced during the incineration process.

 Fly ash consists of finely divided particulate matter, including cinders,

mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ash while
the remainder is fly ash.

 The possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be

harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals
(for example batteries and plastics) should be segregated.

 Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical

supervision and skilled employees for proper operation and
maintenance is required.

 Thus while sanitary landfills and incinerators have their own

advantages and disadvantages, the most effective method of solid
waste management is source reduction and recycling.
 Vermi – Composting
 Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left
undisturbed.

 The biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material

produced by animals and plants. We can mimic the same methods that
are present in nature.

 All dead and dry leaves and twigs decompose and are broken down by
organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken down by
bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.

 These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which
provides them with nutrients for their growth and activities. These
nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again by trees and other
plants.

 This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a

manure for farms and gardens.
 Steps for Vermi-Compost

• Dig a pit about half a meter square, one meter deep.

• Line it with straw or dried leaves and grass.
• Organize the disposal of organic waste into the pit as and when generated.
• Introduce a culture of worms that is now produced commercially.
• Ensure that the contents are covered with a sprinkling of dried leaves and soil
everyday.
• Water the pit once or twice a week to keep it moist.
• Turn over the contents of the pit over 15 days.
• In about 45 days the waste will be decomposed by the action of the
microorganisms.
• The soil derived is fertile and rich in nutrients.
 Hazardous Wastes
 Modern society produces large quantities of hazardous waste which are
generated by chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries,
paper mills, smelters and other industries.

 Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm to humans or the
environment.

 Wastes are normally classified as hazardous waste when they cause or

significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in
serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a
substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the
environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed
of.
 Characteristics of Hazardous Wastes

 A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it exhibits any of the four

primary characteristics based on the physical or chemical properties of
toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity. In addition to this waste
products that are either infectious or radioactive are also classified as
hazardous

 Toxic wastes are those substances that are poisonous even in very small
or trace amounts. Some may have an acute or immediate effect on humans
or animals causing death or violent illness. Others may have a chronic or
long term effect slowly causing irreparable harm to exposed persons. Acute
toxicity is readily apparent because organisms respond to the toxin shortly
after being exposed. Chronic toxicity is much more difficult to determine
because the effects may not be seen for years. Certain toxic wastes are
known to be carcinogenic, causing cancer and others may be mutagenic
causing biological changes in the children of exposed people and animals.

 Reactive wastes are those that have a tendency to react vigorously with
air or water, are unstable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or explode
during routine management. For example, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc.
 Ignitable wastes are those that burn at relatively low temperatures
(less than 600C) and are capable of spontaneous combustion during
storage, transport or disposal. For example, gasoline, paint thinners,
and alcohol.

 Corrosive wastes are those that destroy materials and living tissue by
chemical reaction. For example, acids and bases.

 Infectious wastes include human tissue from surgery, used bandages

and hypodermic needles, microbiological materials, etc.

 Radioactive waste is basically an output from the nuclear power plants

and can persist in the environment for thousands of years before it
decays appreciably.
 Environmental Problems and Health Risks Caused By
Hazardous Wastes

 As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed of on or in land the

most serious environmental effect is contaminated groundwater.

 Once groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes it is very often

not possible to reverse the damage. Pesticides are used increasingly
to protect and increase food production.

 They form residues in the soil which are washed into streams which
then carry them forwards. The residues may persist in the soil or in
the bottom of lakes and rivers. Exposure can occur through ingestion,
inhalation and skin contact resulting in acute or chronic poisoning.

 Today we have an alternative to the excess use of pesticides through

the use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The IPM system uses
a wide variety of plants and insects to create a more natural process.
 The natural balance between climate, soil and insect populations can
help to prevent an insect from overpopulating an area and destroying a
particular crop.

 Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous substances which are often
referred to as heavy metals. Lead is an abundant heavy metal and is
relatively easy to obtain. It is used in batteries, fuel, pesticides, paints,
pipes and other places where resistance to corrosion is required. Most
of the lead taken up by people and wildlife is stored in bones.

 Lead can affect red blood cells by reducing their ability to carry oxygen
and shortening their life span. Lead may also damage nerve tissue
which can result in brain disease.

 Mercury occurs in several different forms. Mercury is used in the

production of chlorine. It is also used as a catalyst in the production of
some plastics. Industrial processes such as the production of chlorine
and plastics are responsible for most of the environmental damage
resulting from mercury. Our body has a limited ability to eliminate
mercury.
 In the food web mercury becomes more concentrated as it is taken up
by various organisms. In an aquatic environment, mercury can be
absorbed by the plankton which are then consumed by fish. In
addition, fish take up mercury through their gills and by eating other
fish contaminated with mercury.

 Generally older the fish greater is the mercury concentration in its

body. Birds that eat the fish concentrate even more mercury in their
bodies.

 It is a cumulative poison ( it builds up in the body over long periods of

time) and is known to cause brain damage.

 Thousands of chemicals are used in industry everyday.

 When used incorrectly or inappropriately they can become health
hazards. PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) are resistant to fire and do
not conduct electricity very well which makes them excellent materials
for several industrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBs out of
disposal areas in dumps and landfills thus contaminating water. PCBs
do not break down very rapidly in the environment and thus retain their
toxic characteristics.

 They cause long term exposure problems to both humans and wildlife.
PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and liver and thus cause
damage. They cause reproductive failure in birds and mammals.

 Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used in the manufacture of

plastic. Usually people are only exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride
if they work with it or near it but exposure can also occur from vinyl
chloride gas leaks. After a long continuous exposure (one to three
years) in humans, vinyl chloride can cause deafness, vision problems,
circulation disorders and bone deformities.
 Vinyl chloride can also cause birth defects. It is essential to substitute
the use of PCBs and vinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic.
Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducing our use of plastics.

 Thus by reducing waste, encouraging recycling and using products that

are well made and durable we can greatly reduce our consumption of
these chemicals thus curtailing our exposure to these substances.

 We may not realize it but many household chemicals can be quite toxic
to humans as well as wildlife.

 Most of the dangerous substances in our homes are found in various

kinds of cleaners, solvents and products used in automotive care.

 When these products are used incorrectly they have the potential to be
harmful.