Unit 11.

2 Global Key concept: Related

Reproducti Context:
Identities and
Connections, culture, concepts:
perspectives and Consequences,
on relationship relationships Interaction,
Models,
Patterns.
Statement of Inquiry:
Uncontrolled population growth through sexual reproduction involving
transformations places an increasing strain on the natural resources of the planet.

ATL Skills:
I. Communication skills Research
• Exchanging thoughts, messages VI. Information literacy skills
and information effectively • Access information to be
through interaction informed and inform others
• Use appropriate forms of writing
to gather and communicate
information
• construct an essay using
appropriate scientific language
and develop their essay structure.
 Inquiry Questions...
Factual Conceptual Debatable
1. How do the structures of 1. How do hormones 1. To what extent is birth
the reproductive system interact with the control ethical?
relate to their functions? structures of the
reproductive system in
the development and
release of gametes (sex
cells).
Unit: Global Context: Key Concept: Related Concepts:

Statement of Inquiry: Reflections:

What do you expect to learn? ATL Skills

What would you like to

learn?
 Aims of the course on reproduction:

To describe the differences between sexual and asexual

reproduction.
To explain the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
reproduction.
To describe the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
Understand and be able to describe fertilization and the stages of the
development of the embryo and foetus.
Be able to describe the stages of the menstrual cycle.
Understand the hormonal control of the menstrual cycle.
Understand how IVF treatment functions, the reasons for it, and the
ethical considerations surrounding its application.
Types of reproduction
Why the pictures of the spider plant?

What do you think the terms asexual

and sexual reproduction mean?
 Copy down the
following key
words and
their
definitions:
Sexual Reproduction- reproduction that
requires a male and female parent and
involves the fertilisation of sex cells
(gametes).

Asexual Reproduction- reproduction that

only requires one parent, resulting in
genetically identical offspring (clones).
 Reproduction

Both sexual and asexual reproduction

have their advantages and disadvantages
The amoeba sisters will explain how.
 An example of asexual reproduction and natural
cloning. Speedy bacterial clones
Bacteria can copy themselves very quickly – their numbers can
double every 20 minutes! That’s 10 times faster than the quickest
animal cells.
• 1. Fertilization flow chart.
• 2. Video - the human body (an everyday miracle) - fertilisation and early development (0.37 - 15 mins).
• 3. Worksheet Sex cells, fertilization and early development (page 1) Male & female reproductive systems.
• 4. D.G. Mackean, GCSE Biology, 3rd edition. Read pp140-146 Answer Q1-4 p142, Q 1-4 p144.
• 5. Video - the human body - fertilisation and early development (15 - 34 mins).
• 6. Microscopes view and sketch semiferous-tubules and ovary.
• 7. Worksheet Sex cells etc. (page 2) The placenta ‘How the foetus is nourished within the mother’s womb’.
• 8. Video - the human body - the placenta (34 -36.45).
• 9. Read pages 212 – 217 of the textbook IGCSE biology by Jones and Jones. Answer questions 17.1 -17.7 on page 2.17
 TASK:
Read the information about the different
organisms that reproduce asexually or
sexually.
Make a table to compare the two forms.
Answer questions 1-8. Each group focus on
two questions.
 Asexual Reproduction
• One parent
• No fusion of gametes so no mixing of genetic information
• Produces clones – genetic material identical to parent
• No genetic variation in offspring
• Mitosis is the only type of cell division involved

What types of organisms can reproduce asexually ?

Mainly bacteria, fungi, small plants and animals.
Also strawberries, potatoes, bulbs
Growth and repair
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7eRGHVx3p0

What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

Asexual reproduction enables an organism to quickly populate a new habitat
and ensures that, if it is well-adapted to its environment, successful
characteristics are passed on.
 Sexual reproduction
• Two parents
• Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
• Characteristics combination of both parents
• Leads to genetic variation
• Gametes formed by MEIOSIS, zygote divides by MITOSIS

What are the male and female

gametes in:
Animals? Sperm and Egg cell (ovum)
Plants? Pollen and Egg cell
Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

Requires 2 parents Requires 1 parents

Requires time and effort to Can happen quickly-

find a mate population increases
rapidly

Offspring are genetically Offspring are genetically

different to parent and identical to parent (clones)
each other- variation and each other
within population
Sexual and asexual
reproduction

Missing words in wrong

order:
• variation environment clones two one gametes
fertilization mate variation DNA
The characteristics of an organism are determined by both its ____________ and the ______________.
Asexual reproduction involves ___________ parent and produces __________ identical offspring called
_________.
Sexual reproduction involves _________ parents and the production of ______________ which join
together at _____________. This mixing of genetic information leads to _________ in the offspring.
There is far more genetic _________ in sexual reproduction than in asexual reproduction, but sexual
reproduction is more risky because the organism must find a suitable ________.

The characteristics of an organism are determined by both its ____________ and the ______________.
Asexual reproduction involves ___________ parent and produces __________ identical offspring called
_________.
Sexual reproduction involves _________ parents and the production of ______________ which join
together at _____________. This mixing of genetic information leads to _________ in the offspring.
There is far more genetic _________ in sexual reproduction than in asexual reproduction, but sexual
reproduction is more risky because the organism must find a suitable ________.

The characteristics of an organism are determined by both its ____________ and the ______________.
Asexual reproduction involves ___________ parent and produces __________ identical offspring called
_________.
Sexual reproduction involves _________ parents and the production of ______________ which join
together at _____________. This mixing of genetic information leads to _________ in the offspring.
There is far more genetic _________ in sexual reproduction than in asexual reproduction, but sexual
reproduction is more risky because the organism must find a suitable ________.

The characteristics of an organism are determined by both its ____________ and the ______________.
Asexual reproduction involves ___________ parent and produces __________ identical offspring called
_________.
Sexual reproduction involves _________ parents and the production of ______________ which join
together at _____________. This mixing of genetic information leads to _________ in the offspring.
There is far more genetic _________ in sexual reproduction than in asexual reproduction, but sexual
reproduction is more risky because the organism must find a suitable ________.
Sexual and asexual
reproduction
Missing words in correct
order
• DNA Environment one clones two gametes
fertilization variation variation mate
• DNA Environment one
clones two gametes
fertilization variation
variation mate
 Listen to the rap
‘me, myself and I’
Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction - Science Rap Academy - Bing video
Bookwork.
Read Jones and Jones pages 198 –
200
Start working through questions 16.4
– 16.12
1. Offspring will be genetically identical to the parent. If the parent
is growing well, the offspring are also likely to grow well as they
will be in the same conditions as the parent plant.
2. Seeds are carried by animals some distance from their parent
plant, and so are likely to be in different conditions from their
parent plant. Variation in the offspring means that there is a
greater chance that some offspring will be well adapted to the
different conditions and so grow well.
3. Many more starfish can benefit from the plentiful food. This can
happen more quickly than finding a mate and reproducing
sexually.
4. The offspring's DNA will match the mother’s completely.
5. Because plants grow more rapidly in summer, so there is a
rapidly increasing food supply for aphids.
6. Females because they are clones of their mother.
7. Asexual reproduction is faster as there is no need to find a mate.
Also, if the mother is well adapted to the environment in that
area, the offspring will be too.
8. There will be variation in the offspring so if the environment
changes there is a greater chance that some offspring will
adapted to the new conditions.
 TASK:
Stick or copy the following table into your
book.
Draw a tick or cross in each in each space.
 These trees are
clones of onean
Explain male

1 2 3
Describe an advantage aspen
of
Describe what tree
organism which reproducing
is meant by a
can reproduce asexually in an
clone.
asexually. isolated
population.

Describe two

4 5 6
Explain why Describe one
differences
aphids only disadvantage
between
reproduce to an animal of
asexual and
asexually in the reproducing
sexual
summer. asexually.
The clones cover an reproduction.
area of over 4 square kilometres in a colony called Pando.
 End
Tasks:10 minutes
Choose, from the next slide, one of the following
exam questions to answer. You will have to outline
your answer to the class.
Promising Good Very good
State an
Explain, using
State an organism that
examples, the
organism that reproduces
advantages
reproduces asexually.
and
asexually. Explain the
disadvantages
Describe the advantages
of reproducing
advantages of and
asexually and
doing this. disadvantages
sexually.
of doing this.
 Sexual Asexual
Feature
reproduction reproduction
Common in bacteria
Plants do it
Most animals do it
Needs two parents
Needs only one parent
Gametes made
Cell fusion involved
No cell fusion involved
Variety in offspring
Offspring are clones
 Sexual Asexual
Feature
reproduction reproduction
Common in bacteria N Y
Plants do it Y Y
Most animals do it Y N (Few)
Needs two parents Y N
Needs only one parent N Y
Gametes made Y N
Cell fusion involved Y N
No cell fusion involved N Y
N (very little due
Variety in offspring Y
to mutation only)
Offspring are clones N Y
 Sexual Asexual Sexual Asexual
Feature Feature
reproduction reproduction reproduction reproduction
Common in bacteria Common in bacteria
Plants do it Plants do it
Most animals do it Most animals do it
Needs two parents Needs two parents
Needs only one parent Needs only one parent
Gametes made Gametes made
Cell fusion involved Cell fusion involved
No cell fusion involved No cell fusion involved
Variety in offspring Variety in offspring
Offspring are clones Offspring are clones

Sexual Asexual Sexual Asexual

Feature Feature
reproduction reproduction reproduction reproduction
Common in bacteria Common in bacteria
Plants do it Plants do it
Most animals do it Most animals do it
Needs two parents Needs two parents
Needs only one parent Needs only one parent
Gametes made Gametes made
Cell fusion involved Cell fusion involved
No cell fusion involved No cell fusion involved
Variety in offspring Variety in offspring
Offspring are clones Offspring are clones
 The cell cycle.
Mitosis and Meiosis
Cell division. Learning
objectives.
What is the cell cycle?
What are the purposes of mitosis?
What is the purpose of meiosis?
How do each achieve these purposes?
What are the differences between meiosis and
mitosis?
Cell
division
•All complex organisms originated from
a single fertilised egg.
•Every cell in your body started here,
through cell division the numbers are
increased
•Cells then specialise and change into
their various roles
•Looking at the diagram on the right,
which cells are produced by mitosis and
which by meiosis
DNA
• DNA is the ‘Blueprint of life’

• DNA codes for all the amino acids in the proteins

(chains of amino acids) needed for life

• By controlling the proteins present in each cell, DNA

codes for the characteristics of living thing

• Each cell with a nucleus contains a copy of ALL the

organism’s DNA and thus each has a complete set of
instructions to make the organism.
Chromosomes
• The DNA in the cell nucleus of an organism is divided
into chromosomes.
• All sexually reproducing animals have pairs of
chromosomes. One set of each pair comes from
each parent

• Humans have 23 pairs

• Lions have 19 pairs
• African wild dogs have 39 pairs
• Mosquito have 3 pairs
• Some ferns have 500-600 pairs
Chromosome Structure
This (imaginary, example) animal has just
two pairs of chromosomes
Red = Maternal Blue = Paternal

1p 1m 2p 2m
Between divisions of the cell, in a phase called
Interphase, each chromosome replicates and
produces an exact copy of itself. There are still
four chromosomes but each is made of two
chromatids:

1p + copy 1m + copy 2p + copy 2m +copy

Human Karyotype (graphical representation of
chromosomes)
Mitosis
• Mitosis is the process by which new identical cells
are produced for:

• Growth
• Replacing damaged or old cells.
• Asexual reproduction.
Cell division by
mitosis
Cell division by
mitosis
Cell division by
mitosis
Cell division by
mitosis
INTERPHASE
The cell cycle
 Ordering events of the cell cycle
and mitosis (needs mitosis card
sets)
Work in pairs. Each group is given a set of cards
showing stages of the cell cycle and mitosis.
Shuffle the pack and then arrange them in a circle in
the correct order.
Identify a card in which:
Each chromosome consists of two chromatids.
The chromatids have separated.
The cell is in interphase.
The nuclear membrane is still intact.
The nuclear membrane has broken down.
The nuclear membrane has reformed.
The chromosomes are arranged on the equator of
the cell.
The cell cycle and mitosis.
• Take the photographs of the cell cycle and mitosis.
Arrange them in order to form a circle.
• When you have arranged them consider what is
happening at each stage.
Outline of Mitosis
1. DNA is found in ______________ in the ___________.
Before mitosis, the DNA __________________________.

2. Chromosomes become visible as the DNA of each

chromosome is ___________ around proteins and is
__________________ folded up on itself.

3. The ______________ _____________ disappears and the

___________ line up along the ____________ of the cell

4. Chromatids (which become chromosomes) are pulled

apart to _____________ ______________ by contracting
fibres.
5. The ______________ ______________ forms around
each group of chromosomes and the __________
divides.
6. Two new ________________ _____________
daughter cells are formed.
Missing words
• Genetically identical, Replicates,
Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Chromosomes,
Equator, Nuclear membrane,
Neatly, Chromosomes, Cell,
Replicates, Coiled, opposite poles.
Stages of Mitosis. ‘cells
alive’ Interactive animation

•https://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis_js.htm
Amoeba sisters.
Mitosis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI
 Examining plant root tip
cells
• Most plants grow occurs at the tips of their roots
and shoots. Root tips would, therefore, be a good
place to look for cells that are in the process of cell
division by mitosis.
• Examine the root tips first on low power. Try to find
cells in which you can see chromosomes (these will
be the ones that are undergoing mitosis).
• Position these cells in the center of your field of
vision, and then change the magnification to
medium or high power. Draw the cell and its
chromosomes.
• Repeat the process with another cell in a different
stage of mitosis.
There are four stages to
Mitosis
• Prophase

• Metaphase

• Anaphase

• Telophase

• Remember though that this is a continuous process

Interphase
• Standard condition
of cell

• DNA replicates

• Cell enters
reproductive cycle
with four copies of
each chromosome
Prophase
• DNA super coils and
chromosomes
become visible

• Nuclear membrane
breaks down

• Centrosomes
migrate to poles
Metaphase
• Chromosomes line
up centromeres on
equator of cell

• Centrosomes form
spindles
Anaphase
• Spindles ‘grip’
centromeres and
chromosomes
migrate to poles
Telophase
• Nuclear membranes
reform

• Chromosomes
disperse

• Cytokinesis begins
Interphase
• Both daughter cells
are exact copies of
the parent cell
RECAP: Mitosis
Stick the worksheet ‘cell
division’ into your exercise
book.
Complete pages 1 and 2.
Answer questions 1- 4 on
page 4.
Cell division
Ref er ence:
 ` Coor dinat ed science` 3r d edit ion, page 24 - 27.
 ` G.C.S .E. Biology` , D.G. Mackean; 3r d edit ion, pages 183 - 185.

Cell division
Cell division is t he pr ocess by which a cell divides int o t wo or mor e cells.

1. How many chr omosomes ar e in t he nucleus of t he par ent cell (t he cell on t he

lef t )?

2. I n pencil dr aw t he chr omosomes in t he nuclei of t he t wo daught er cells (t he cells

on t he r ight ).

3. Why ar e t he chr omosomes in t he par ent cell diff er ent t o t hose in t he daught er
cells?

4. Dr aw a chr omosome af t er it has r eplicat ed (act ually as it would be seen dur ing
t he ear ly st ages of mit osis). A dd t he f ollowing labels: chr omosome, chr omat id,
cent r omer e.

5. Dr aw t he same chr omosome j ust af t er t he cell has divided (bef or e t he

chr omosome has r eplicat ed again).

T ypes of cell division

(Missing wor ds: mit ot ic half meiosis t wo ident ical mit osis gamet es adult r epair f our half )

T her e ar e t wo t ypes of cell division:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Mit osis pr oduces

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ daught er cells t hat ar e genet ically _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ t o t he or iginal cells.
Meiosis r esult s in _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ daught er nuclei each wit h _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ t he
number of chr omosomes of t he mot her cell nucleus.
Cell division is essent ial f or lif e. For sexually r epr oducing or ganisms, such as humans,
meiot ic cell division enables t he f or mat ion of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (sper m or egg)
which can t hen f use wit h gamet es of t he ot her gender t o f or m t he zygot es. Mit ot ic cell
division enables gr owt h and development f r om a single celled zygot e t o an
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . A s well as gr owt h, cell division allows f or cont inual
Cell division
Ref erence:
 `Coordinated science` 3rd edition, page 24 - 27.
 `G.C.S.E. Biology`, D.G. Mackean; 3rd edition, pages 183 - 185.

Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a cell divides into two or more cells.
1. How many chromosomes are in the nucleus of the parent cell
(the cell on the left)?

2. In pencil draw the chromosomes in the nuclei of the two

daughter cells (the cells on the right).

3. Why are the chromosomes in the parent cell different to those

in the daughter cells?

4. Draw a chromosome after it has replicated (actually as it would

be seen during the early stages of mitosis). Add the following labels:
chromosome, chromatid, centromere.

5. Draw the same chromosome just after the cell has divided
(before the chromosome has replicated again).
Types of cell division (Missing words: mitotic half meiosis two identical
mitosis gametes adult repair four half)

There are two types of cell division:___________ and _________.

Mitosis produces __________ daughter cells that are genetically
______________ to the original cells. Meiosis results in _____________
daughter nuclei each with _____________ the number of chromosomes
of the mother cell nucleus.
Cell division is essential for life. For sexually reproducing organisms,
such as humans, meiotic cell division enables the formation of
____________ (sperm or egg) which can then fuse with gametes of the
other gender to form the zygotes. Mitotic cell division enables growth
and development from a single celled zygote to an _____________. As
well as growth, cell division allows for continual __________________
of the organism. __________________ of the organism. Simple
unicellular organisms such as the Amoeba reproduce asexually using
_______________ division to reproduce an entire organism. Larger
organisms such as plants can also reproduce asexually using mitosis.
The cell cycle
In mitosis the daughter cells from cell division have the same number of
chromosomes as the original cell; in meiosis they have ___________. To
maintain the correct number of chromosomes in the daughter cells, the
chromosomes of the mother cell replicate (duplicate) before cell
division occurs. Then, during mitosis or meiosis, the replicated
chromosomes are separated and divided evenly amongst the nuclei of
the daughter cells. These events form the cell cycle, which is shown
below.
Mitosis

In mitosis the nucleus of a cell divides to form two nuclei which are
genetically identical to each other and to the original parent nucleus.
Mitosis is outlined in the diagram below.
Meiosis (Missing words: fertilization Haploid two)

Meiosis is the process that allows one diploid cell (a cell with _________
copies of each chromosome) to divide in a way that generates
____________ cells (cells with one copy of each chromosome). Meiosis
is needed to make gametes for sexual reproduction. Early in meiosis,
homologous chromosomes (chromosomes containing the same genes)
pair up, and line up on the equator of the cell. There then follows two
rounds of division, resulting in haploid gametes. Each gamete contains
one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the
original cell. Haploid gametes can fuse with other haploid cells of the
opposite gender during _______________________ to create a diploid
cell zygote (the first cell of offspring).
Add the following terms to the diagrams above, homologous
chromosomes, haploid daughter cells, diploid daughter cells, cell
division, first division, second division.
Comparing mitosis and meiosis
The diagram below summarizes both processes to enable easy
comparison.

Add the following terms to the diagrams above,

homologous chromosomes, haploid daughter cells,
diploid daughter cells, cell division, first division, second
1. In which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

2.Which type of cell division is involved in the formation of gametes?

3.What is cytokinesis?

4.List two functions of mitosis.

5.List three differences between mitosis and meiosis.

6.What is meant by the term haploid?

7.What is meant by the term diploid?

8.What is meant by the term eukaryotic?

9.In the diagram of meiosis at the top of page 3, label a chromosome, a chromatid
and a homologous pair.

10.The chromosomes of a homologous pair contain the same genes. Does this mean
that the sequence of DNA in each chromosome is identical to that of its homologous
pair? Explain!
11. Label the stages of meiosis in the photograph below.

12. In the above diagram of meiosis, add a label to identify the

phase in which chromatids separate.

13. In the above diagram of meiosis, add a label to identify the

phase in which chromatids separate.
14. In the above diagram of meiosis, add a label to identify the phase in
which homologous chromosomes separate.

15. In the above diagram of meiosis, add a label to identify the phase in
which homologous chromosomes pair up.

16. What is the name of a human embryo immediately following

fertilisation? (Ref: IGCSE Biology, Jones & Jones, page 216).

17. How many cells are there in a human embryo immediately following
fertilisation? How many cells do you have in your body?

18. How many chromosomes are there in each human cell? Where are
these chromosomes located in each cell?

19. How many copies of each chromosome are there in each cell?
Video The cell cycle and
cancer.
The amoeba sisters
(optional)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=QVCjdNxJreE&t=190s
 Meiosis and the formation of gametes
What is the difference between the karyotype (chromosome set) of these
two cells? Why do you think there is this difference?

Sperm Cell Body Cell

Gametes are formed by meiosis, a type of cell division where the daughter
cells have half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division in which a diploid
cell divides to form four non-identical haploid
daughter cells.

Used for the production of gametes.

Note: Diploid refers to a cell with two copies of

each chromosome.
Haploid refers to a cell with one copy of each
chromosome.
Meiosis
• Since meiosis is used to form sex cells (gametes)
are produced, it ONLY occurs in the gonads (the
organs that produce gametes (the testes and the
ovary)

• Instead of producing two identical daughter cells,

meiosis produces four non-identical daughter cells,
each with only half the number of chromosomes (in
humans 23 instead of 23 pairs).
 Meiosis and fertilization
Gametes are said to be haploid - they have a single set of chromosomes.
Ovaries
Meiosis Fertilisation
23
46

46

Meiosis 23
MITOSIS Embryo
46 Zygote

Testes

Gametes form from diploid cells (2 sets of chromosomes) in the ovaries

and testes.
When the gametes fuse they form a diploid zygote.
Meiosis
Cell division to form the ovum (egg) by
meiosis
MEIOSIS.
Diploid cell in ovaries or testes. Diploid
means two copies of each chromosome.

At this stage each chromosome

consists of 2 chromatids.

Two rounds of division to form

four haploid cells, each with a
single set of chromosomes

Each gamete is genetically

different to the others
Video: Amoeba sisters. Meiosis

Watch the video and make notes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g
Arrange the meiosis cards in the correct
order.
Meiosis. Interactive
animation showing the
stages.
https://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis_js.htm
Complete the worksheet ‘cell
division’ that you have stuck
into your exercise book.
You probably still have to
complete pages 2 and 3.
Answer questions 5- 18 on
page 4.
Interphase
• As before

• Standard condition of
cell

• DNA replicates

• Cell enters
reproductive cycle
with four copies of
each chromosome
Prophase I
• DNA super coils and
chromosomes
become visible

• Nuclear membrane
breaks down

• Homologous pairs
line up
Prophase I
• Non-sister
chromosomes join
up and crossing
over occurs (the
swapping of
sections)
Chiasmata
Prophase I
• Centrosomes
migrate to equator
of cell and spindles
form
Metaphase I
• Homologous
chromosomes line
up on equator of
cell

• Random assortment
takes place
Metaphase I
• Homologous
chromosomes line
up on equator of
cell

• Random assortment
takes place
Anaphase I
• Homologous
chromosomes
attach to spindles

• Spindles contract
and pull
homologous
chromosomes apart
Telophase I
• Nuclear membrane
reforms

• Chromosomes
disperse

• Cytokinesis begins
Prophase II
• Chromosomes
recondense

• Centrosomes
migrate

• Nuclear membranes
disperse
• Spindles form
Metaphase II
• Chromosomes
migrate to equator
Anaphase II
• Spindles contract

• Chromosomes
migrate
Telophase II
• Nuclear membranes
reform

• Chromosomes
disperse

• Cytokinesis
completes the cycle
INTERPHASE

M
E
I
O
S
I
S
 Examining cells
undergoing meiosis using
the microscope.
• Examine the slides of cells undergoing meiosis on
low power. Try to find cells in which you can see
chromosomes (these will be the ones that are
undergoing meiosis).
• Position these cells in the center of your field of
vision, and then change the magnification to
medium or high power. Draw the cell and its
chromosomes.
Demonstration of mitosis and meiosis on desk using
paper chromosomes.
 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/baby/divi_flash.html

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter12/animations.html#
Question and answer session.
What are the similarities and differences between meiosis
and mitosis?
 Mitosis Meiosis

Where does it take place

How many daughter cells are

produced?
How does the genetic information in
the daughter cells compare to the
original cell?
How does the genetic information in
the daughter cells compare to the
sister cell?
Are the daughter cells haploid (1
copy of each chromosome) or diploid
(2 copies of each chromosome)?

How many divisions are there?

What type of cell forms?

What is the function?

When does replication of DNA &

chromosomes take place?

Do homologous chromosomes pair

up, and if so, in which phase?
 Mitosis Meiosis

Where does it take place All over the body In the sexual organs (testes or ovary).

How many daughter cells are Two Four

produced?
How does the genetic information in Identical Non-identical. Half. Haploid
the daughter cells compare to the
original cell?
How does the genetic information in Identical Non-identical
the daughter cells compare to sister
daughter cells?
Are the daughter cells haploid (1 copy Diploid Haploid
of each chromosome) or diploid (2
copies of each chromosome)?

How many divisions are there? One Two

What type of cell forms? Normal body cells (somatic cells) Sex cells (gametes)
What is the function? Growth, repair, asexual Produce gametes for sexual
reproduction reproduction
When does replication of DNA & Before mitosis, during interphase. Before meiosis, during interphase.
chromosomes take place?
Do homologous chromosomes pair up, No Yes, during prophase 1 and
and if so, in which phase? metaphase 1
 Quick Quiz
1. This is reproduction involving 1 parent 1. Asexual
2. This is the scientific name for the eggs and 2. Gametes
sperm
3. This is the type of cell division that produces 3. Meiosis
gametes 4. Pollen
4. Plants do not have sperm instead they have…
5. Sexual
5. This is reproduction involving 2 parents
6. This is the type of cell division that produces 6. Mitosis
more body cells 7. Fertilisation
7. This is the name we give to the joining of eggs
and sperm 8. Zygote
8. This is the cell that is produced
 True or False?
1. Mitosis is necessary for growth, repair and replacement of tissues
2. In meiosis the number of chromosomes stays the same.
3. Mitosis involves two divisions of chromosomes
4. Meiosis takes place in body cells
5. Mitosis results in genetically identical cells.
6. There are four daughter cells at the end of meiosis
7. Meiosis occurs in female egg cells throughout life
8. The first division in meiosis involves the chromosomes forming
pairs
9. Sexual reproduction reduces the amount of variation in a
population
10. Mitosis is the production of four identical daughter cells
11.A cell is known as haploid when it contains one full set of
chromosomes.
Non-disjunction leading to
chromosomal disorders.
Trisomy 2. Down’s syndrome.
Affecting 5000 babies born each year in UK.

Trisomy 18. Edwards syndrome. Severe intellectual disability and

physical abnormalities (such as heart defects), in many parts of
the body.

Trisomy 13. Patau Syndrome. Severe developmental delays.

1000
working
genes

86
working
genes
Fertilization and early development. Flow chart

To make sure that you understand the basics,

complete the flow chart about gametogenesis,
fertilization and early development.
Fertilization and early development. BBC film

Watch the video ‘the human body (an everyday

miracle)’.

This is all about fertilization and early

development. (0.40 – 14.25 mins).
https://archive.org/details/bbc.-the.-human.-
body.-3of-7.-first.-steps.-div-x-505.-ac-3.-
mvgroup/
BBC.The.Human.Body.2of7.An.Everyday.Miracle.Di
vX505.AC3.MVGroup.avi
Fertilization and early development.

Worksheet outlining the essentials.

Complete the worksheet Sex cells, fertilization and

early development (page 1).
Page 1 is about the Male & female reproductive
systems.
You will need some help from the diagrams in the
powerpoint, and the book, to show where the
different stages of early embryonic development
occur in the female reproductive system
The male reproductive
system
The female reproductive
system
The female reproductive system and the early
development of the embryo
The female reproductive
system
The female reproductive
system
Fertilization and early
development
Read the classroom textbook D.G. Mackean,
GCSE Biology, 3rd edition, pages 140-144.

Answer questions 1-4 on page 142 and

questions 1-4 on page144.
Structure and functioning of the male and female
reproductive systems.

Read pages 212 – 217 of the textbook IGCSE biology

by Jones and Jones.
This section is about the structure and functioning of
the male and female reproductive systems.

Answer questions 17.1 -17.7 on page 2.17

Bookwork on reproductive system,
fertilization and early development.

Read pages 212 – 217 of the textbook

IGCSE biology by Jones and Jones. Answer
questions 17.1 -17.7 on page 2.17
Fertilization and early
development. BBC film
Watch the video ‘the human body (an everyday
miracle)’.
This part is about fertilization and very early
development. (14.10 – 34.18 mins).
https://archive.org/details/bbc.-the.-
human.-body.-3of-7.-first.-steps.-div-x-
505.-ac-3.-mvgroup/
BBC.The.Human.Body.2of7.An.Everyday.M
iracle.DivX505.AC3.MVGroup.avi
Using the microscope to study the testes and
ovaries where the gametes are formed.

Set up your microscope with first a slide of the

seminiferous tubules from the testes or the ovary.
Make a detailed drawing of what you observe.
Use internet research to help you label what you
observe. Carry out the same process on the
second slide.
The seminiferous tubule.
Where sperm are
produced.
Where the sperm are
produced
The structure of the ovary
The structure of the ovary
The structure of the ovary
The structure of the follicle in the ovary
The structure of the testes and semiferous tubules
The structure of the testes
and semiferous tubules
Early development and the role of the placenta
(page 2 of worksheet)

Complete the second page of the worksheet ‘Sex

cells, fertilization and early development’.
The placenta. A very simple
diagram
Classroom textbook D.G. Mackean, GCSE Biology,
3rd edition (14 copies in wire cupboard D18).

Read pages 145-146.

Answer question 3 on page 146

the embryo and
foetus
Copy the table in your exercise books (Large).
Move around the class looking at the models
and the information sheets and make notes in
the table.

Time in development of Significant changes taking place.

the embryo or fetus
(hours, days or months)
Time in development of Significant changes taking place.
the embryo or fetus
(hours, days or months)
Development of the embryo and foetus
Once you have finished making notes in the table that you copied or were given, open the
following sites to gain a more detailed insight.
Make notes on these.
Timeline of pregnancy and foetal and embryonic development
Embryonic Development - ppt download (slideplayer.com)
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5814030/
How to build a human
12-16-14.gif (1080×1316) (tabletopwhale.com)
Timeline human development (interesting site)
https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Timeline_human_development
Stages of Development of the Fetus - Women's Health Issues - Merck Manuals Consumer
Version
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_embryonic_development
23.3: Embryonic Stage - Biology LibreTexts
Note to teacher.
The following 10 -15 slides could be colour printed and
distributed around the class along with the models, to
provide information for the completion of the above table.
Day 0
Fertilization, the joining of the sperm and the egg in the
fallopian tube (below) to form a unique human being,
occurs.
Day 2 This is a fertilized egg only thirty hours after
conception. Magnified here, it is no larger than the
head of a pin. Still rapidly dividing, the developing
embryo, called a zygote at this stage, floats down from
the fallopian tube and towards the uterus.
Week 1 Early development
of the embryo: First week

Day 2
Week 1 Early development
of the embryo: First week
WEEK 3-5 The embryo’s tiny heart begins to beat by day twenty-
one. Arm and leg buds are visible and the formation of the eyes,
lips, and nose has begun. The spinal cord grows faster than the
rest of the body giving a tail like appearance which disappears as
the embryo continues to grow. The placenta begins to provide
nourishment for the embryo.
WEEK 7 Major organs have all begun to form. The embryo has
developed its own blood type, unique from the mother’s. Hair
follicles and knees and elbows are visible. Facial features are
also observable. The eyes have a retina and lens. The major
muscle system is developed and the embryo is able to move.
WEEK 8-12 The embryo is reactive to its environment inside
the amniotic sac where it swims and moves. Hands and feet
can be seen. At the end of week 8, the embryonic period is
over and the foetal stage begins.
Weeks 13-16 The brain is fully developed and the foetus can suck,
swallow, and make irregular breathing sounds. Foetus can feel
pain. Foetal skin is almost transparent. Muscles tissue is
lengthening and bones are becoming harder. Liver and organs
produce appropriate fluids. Eyebrows and eyelashes appear and th
fetus makes active movements including kicks and even
somersaults.
Week 20-24 A protective waxy substance called Vernix covers
the skin. By birth, most of the vernix will be gone but any that is
left is quickly absorbed. Foetus has a hand and footprints and
fingerprints are forming. Foetus practices breathing by inhaling
amniotic fluid into its developing lungs.
Weeks 25 – 28 Rapid brain development occurs during this period and the nervous
system is able to control some bodily functions. The foetus’ eyelids now open and
close. At 25 weeks there is a 60% chance of survival if born.

Weeks 29 – 32 There is a rapid increase in the amount of body fat the foetus has.
Rhythmic breathing occurs, but the lungs are not yet mature. The foetus sleeps 90-
95% of the day. At this point there the survival rate is above 95% if the baby is born.
Month1&2 Early
development of the
embryo
Day 16 Early development of the embryo:
Day 16 Gastrulation blastocyst folds in on
itself to form different layers of body.
Weeks 3-12 Early
development of the
embryo
Birth
Optional bookwork on birth.

Book: D.G. Mackean, GCSE Biology, 3rd

edition (14 copies in D18).

Birth Read pp 146-148 make brief notes.

Video - the human body – Birth (42.00 – 49.31)

https://archive.org/details/bbc.-the.-human.-body.-3of-7.-first.-steps.-
div-x-505.-ac-3.-mvgroup/
BBC.The.Human.Body.2of7.An.Everyday.Miracle.DivX505.AC3.MVGro
up.avi

or:

•Life Before Birth - In the Womb Nearly 2hours

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=0gAsdEUNUJY&ab_channel=NakedScience
•Pregnancy 101 | National Geographic 4 minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=XEfnq4Q4bfk&ab_channel=NationalGeographic

•Conception to birth -- visualized | Alexander Tsiaras

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKyljukBE70&ab_channel=TED
New sub-topic!

Guess the topic of this lesson from the

following video clip.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ECVT0MymH5o&feature=related
The Menstrual Cycle
When a girl goes through puberty one of the changes that
occurs is that she will begin to have periods.

This is the female body’s way of preparing to reproduce

A woman’s reproductive system works on a 28 day cycle

This cycle is known as the

menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle consists of

A number of stages

In this lesson we will learn what

those stages are.....
Day 1 – 7

The menstruation cycle

starts with the first day
of a woman’s period.
This is the name given to
the time of the month
when the lining of the
uterus comes away and
exits through the vagina
as blood.
Day 7 - 13

Around day 7 the blood flow

stops.

The lining of the uterus

begins to build up again.

At this time an egg starts to

mature in one of the ovaries
Day 14 (The Middle)

On the 14th day which is the

middle of the cycle, an egg is
released by an ovary into the
oviduct.
Day 14 - 17

The egg can last up to 3 days

after it is released from the
ovary.

During this time the egg

travels down the oviduct and
into the uterus hoping to be
fertilised.
Day 18 - 28

If the egg is not fertilised

then the lining of the uterus
begins to break down.
The cycle starts over again...

Day 1 – 7

The cycle starts over

again expelling the lining
of the uterus and the
egg.

Remember this is known

as a period or
menstruation.
 The Menstrual Cycle

Copy these sentences into the correct boxes.

Egg released (ovulation) Period (menstruation) Egg dies if not
fertilised

Lining starts to thicken If egg is fertilised it settles into thick lining

Use your completed diagram to answer these questions:
1. How long is one menstrual cycle?
2. On which day of the menstrual cycle does the period start?
3. On which day of the menstrual cycle is an egg released from the ovary?
4. What happens to the lining of the uterus if an egg is not fertilised?
5. Does a woman have periods while she is pregnant? Explain your answer.
6. How long does a period usually last in the 28 day cycle?
7. If an egg was released from the left ovary on the 2nd March, when would the next egg be released from the right
ovary?
8. If a woman has a period which begins on the 1st January, when will her next period begin?
Difficult question!!
9. An egg can survive for up to 3 days after it is released (up to day 17). Sperm can survive up to 8 days inside the woman. Susie
want to have a baby. She has a cycle exactly like on the diagram. On which days of the cycle might sexual intercourse lead to
her becoming pregnant?
Use your completed diagram to answer these questions:
1. How long is one menstrual cycle?
2. On which day of the menstrual cycle does the period start?
3. On which day of the menstrual cycle is an egg released from the ovary?
4. What happens to the lining of the uterus if an egg is not fertilised?
5. Does a woman have periods while she is pregnant? Explain your answer.
6. How long does a period usually last in the 28 day cycle?
7. If an egg was released from the left ovary on the 2nd March, when would the next egg be released from the right
ovary?
8. If a woman has a period which begins on the 1st January, when will her next period begin?
Difficult question!!
9. An egg can survive for up to 3 days after it is released (up to day 17). Sperm can survive up to 8 days inside the woman. Susie
want to have a baby. She has a cycle exactly like on the diagram. On which days of the cycle might sexual intercourse lead to
her becoming pregnant?
Use your completed diagram to answer these questions:
How long is one menstrual cycle?
On which day of the menstrual cycle does the period start?
On which day of the menstrual cycle is an egg released from the ovary?
What happens to the lining of the uterus if an egg is not fertilised?
Does a woman have periods while she is pregnant? Explain your
answer.
How long does a period usually last in the 28 day cycle?
If an egg was released from the left ovary on the 2nd March, when
would the next egg be released from the right ovary?
If a woman has a period which begins on the 1st January, when will her
next period begin?
Difficult question!!
9. An egg can survive for up to 3 days after it is released (up to day
17). Sperm can survive up to 8 days inside the woman. Susie want to
have a baby. She has a cycle exactly like on the diagram. On which days
of the cycle might sexual intercourse lead to her becoming pregnant?
 Answers
1. How long is one menstrual cycle? 28 days
2. On which day of the menstrual cycle does the period start? Day 1
3. On which day of menstrual cycle is an egg released from the ovary?
Day 14
4. What happens to the lining of the uterus if an egg is not fertilised?
It breaks down and leaves through the vagina as a period.
5. Does a woman have periods while she is pregnant? Explain your
answer.
No, because the lining remains inside the uterus – it is where
the embryo is attached.
6. How long does a period usually last in the 28 day cycle? 5 days
7. If an egg was released from the left ovary on the 2 nd March, when
would the next egg be released from the right ovary? 30th March
8. If a woman has a period which begins on the 1st January, when will her
next period begin? 29th January
9. An egg can survive for up to 3 days after it is released (up to day 17).
Sperm can survive up to 8 days inside the woman. Susie want to have a
baby. She has a cycle exactly like on the diagram. On which days of the
HORMONAL CONTROL
OF THE MENSTRUAL
CYCLE
Worksheet. The hormonal control of the
menstrual cycle.

Read the worksheet and complete as many

of the questions as you can. I will give you
lots of help to do this.
Sex hormones and the menstrual cycle
D.G. Mackean, GCSE Biology: 3rd edition, pages 148-9
Jones and Jones IGCSE Biology 3rd edition, pages 220-222

Missing words: secondary, testes, oestrogen, testosterone, hips,

puberty, breasts, muscles, voice, ovaries.

Sex hormones have several different roles in having children and

caring for them.

The development of primary and secondary sexual

characteristics in boys and girls at puberty.
The ____________ of a girl begin to release large amounts of ____­­
_________ when a girl reaches the age of 9 – 14; this stage in her life is
known as ________________. This hormone, ____________, brings about
the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
Primary sexual characteristics are the enlargement of the vagina
uterus and ovaries. ______________ sexual characteristics include the
growth of hair in the pubic region and armpits, widening of the
_______, and the development of ____________.
The development of primary and secondary
sexual characteristics in boys and girls at
puberty.
Puberty is reached in boys at about 12 and 16.
At puberty the testes begin to release large
amounts of the hormone ______________. This
hormones bring about the development of
primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
Primary sexual characteristics are the
enlargement of the reproductive organs.
Secondary sexual characteristics include the
growth of hair on the face, chest armpits and
pubic region, the deepening of the ________, and
development of __________.
 Video about changes at puberty.
Video ‘Human body’ Episode 3 ‘Raging teens’

28.48 Changes in growth (scanner showing bone

growth) 29.00 Differences in growth boys and girls.
30.28 Male growth spurt-end of puberty, Female-start of
puberty (Hips interesting). 31.28 Testosterone, 33.30 -
34.30 Voice box. 34.30-41.30 skip.
41.30 Boy in trouble with Dad, 43.30 right and wrong
(interesting), 45.30 changes in brain, 47.30 end.

https://archive.org/details/bbc.-the.-human.-body.-3of-7.-
first.-steps.-div-x-505.-ac-3.-mvgroup/
BBC.The.Human.Body.4of7.Raging.Teens.DivX505.AC3.M
VGroup.avi
The pituitary gland in the
brain releases FSH (follicle
stimulating hormone)
 FSH stimulates egg
maturation (development)
and the release of
oestrogen from the ovaries
 Oestrogen then…
•Causes the uterus lining to
thicken
•Switches OFF the release
of FSH
•Switches ON the release of
LH
 LH is released from the
pituitary gland and
stimulates egg release from
the ovary
If the egg is not fertilised a
period occurs and the cycle
begins again
If the egg is fertilised
progesterone is released
which maintains the uterus
lining and stops the release
of FSH
Video about hormonal control of
the menstrual cycle.

Menstrual Cycle for IGCSE Biology – YouTube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=EwfZuAOa_ZM&ab_channel=TomDare
Bookwork on the menstrual cycle
Read ‘the menstrual cycle’ on pages 220-
222 of Cambridge IGCSE Biology
Coursebook, by Jones and Jones.
Complete question 17.14-17.18 on page
222.
Video about other changes that come
about during the menstrual cycle.

BBC video ‘INSIDE the human body (Episode 1

Creation)’ 6.15 – 10.20. about fertility changes
in animals, and sperm production.

https://ihavenotv.com/creation-inside-the-
human-body

https://archive.org/details/inside-the-human-
body-bbc/Inside+The+Human+Body+-
+S01E01+-+Creation+-+Legendado.mp4
 Question
• Imagine you are the biologist Gregory Pincus
working in the U.S.A in the 1950s. You have
a mission to develop a contraceptive pill.
• What substances would you use in this pill in
this pill and why?
• Do you think that there might be a link
between your invention and some changes in
society that will occur in the 1960s? Explain!
The emergency contraceptive/morning-after pill.

Ingesting within 12 or 24 hours 95% prevention. After 48 hours efficiency is 85%.

After 72 hours 52%.
The pill is not abortive and can act in the following ways:

Ovulation is delayed or stopped.

Fertilization inhibited if egg already released.
The lining of the uterus (endometrium) is irritated to inhibit implantation.

The pill contains progesterone, but in concentrated amounts.

Each pill equivalent to 10 contraceptive pills in amount.
Hence emergency method.

Alternative emergency contraception: The intrauterine device (IUD).

Small, T-shaped plastic and copper device that's put into womb (uterus) by a doctor
or nurse.
It releases copper to stop the egg implanting in endometrium or being fertilized.
Pregnancy testing kits.

Pregnancy testing kits test for a hormone

either in a woman’s urine or in her blood.
Which hormone do these tests detect?
In vitro Fertilisation
 The process of in vitro fertilization
(video)
• The following video outlines the whole
process of ‘in vitro fertilization’ (IVF)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=uXsCngh89fI&ab_channel=NucleusMedical
Media
The process of in vitro fertilization
(diagram 1)
The process of in vitro fertilization
(diagram 2)
 Outcomes

Level 5
Describe what infertility.
Describe what IVF is.
Give a reason why IVF is used.
•Level 6
Give reasons why people should receive IVF
•Level 7
•Justify your decisions for treating a person or not
 Group Questions
1. What is IVF?
2. What is infertility?
3. When was the first human embryo fertilised
outside the body?
4. Suggest 2 reasons why someone might want
IVF
5. Who should pay for IVF?
6. How might IVF be useful?
 Introduction
• The first test-tube baby,
Louise Brown, was born on
25 July 1978 at Oldham and
District General Hospital.
• The consultant PATRICK
STEPTOE was part of the
team that developed in
vitro fertilisation (IVF).
• Today IVF is used
throughout the world to
help women who are
unable to conceive
naturally.
 These ‘test-tube babies’ raise a number of ethical problems.
The most important of these is whether people have a right to a
child .
• Recently there has been
a growth in the number
of older women in their
50s and 60s having IVF
treatment.
• In 2006, a Spanish
woman, MARIA DEL
CARMEN BOUSADA,
aged 67, gave birth to
twins. Did she have a
right to a child?
• Do single people have
the right to have a
child?

• Do same-sex couples
have the right to have a
child?
 This is the spare embryo problem.

What is the moral status

of the fertilised embryos
that are not implanted
into the woman?
 This is the donor father problem.

What is the moral status

of the biological father
when he is not the
spouse/partner of the
mother?
 What moral issues are raised by
multiple births?
In the UK, women under 40
can have two embryos
implanted, and women
over 40 three.

But in some countries

larger numbers are
implanted to increase the
chances of success. This
can result in multiple
births, with as many as 8
babies being born.
High light the facts you are moist
surprised by in pink
Case studies
 Group Task
• Read through the fact sheet and highlight the
area you already now and the facts which
surprise you.
• Read the family case studies to decide who
should receive IVF treatment.
• Explain how you made your decisions
 Outcomes

Level 5
Describe what infertility.
Describe what IVF is.
Give a reason why IVF is used.
•Level 6
Give reasons why people should receive IVF
•Level 7
•Justify your decisions for treating a person or not
Miscellaneous slides
The cell cycle
The intrauterine device