PRESSURE

INSTRUMENTS
Pressure Instruments

Selection, Installation, Servicing of:

Pressure Gages
Pressure Switches
Pressure Transmitters
Principles of Pressure

Absolute Pressure

• Absolute pressure = Gage + Atmospheric

• Actual Pressure

Barometer measures Absolute Pressure

Principles of Pressure

Gage Pressure

• Difference between actual pressure and

atmospheric pressure

Pressure gages and most Pressure Transducers

measure gage pressure
Principles of Pressure

Differential Pressure

• Difference between two pressures

Manometer
Principles of Pressure

Vacuum
• Any pressure below atmospheric pressure
• “Negative” pressure
• Perfect Vacuum means zero pressure (a space
totally without any gas molecule)

Unit of measure for vacuum: Torr (from Evangelista Torricelli – inventor of barometer)
•0 Torr = perfect vacuum
•1 Torr = 1 mm Hg
•760 Torr = 760 mm Hg = 1 atmosphere absolute
Principles of Pressure

ISO Pressure Unit - Pascal

• 1 Pa = 1 Newton / m2
• KPa = Kilo Pascal = 1000 Pa
• 1 Bar = 1 Atmosphere = 14.7 psi = 100 KPa

To convert to Pascal (Pa)

From Multiply by
Atmosphere (standard) 1.01 x 105
Atmosphere (technical) = 1 kgf/cm2 9.80 x 104
Bar 1.00 x 105
Kgf / cm2 9.80 x 104
Lbf/in2 (psi) 6.89 x 103
Torr(= 1 mm Hg) 1.33 x 102
Inch of H2O (60 oF) 2.48 x 102
Pressure Unit Conversion
Pressure Gages
Pressure Gages – Sensing Mechanisms

Bourdon
Tube
• metallic flat tube formed into a “C”
• one end is fixed and connected to the
pressure circuit.
• the other end is sealed and free to
move.

•When pressure is applied to the tube, the free end is forced

to move outwards.

•This movement is linked to the pointer movement

mechanism to indicate the pressure measurement.

•Used in measuring ranges from around 400 mBar to 60 Bar.

Pressure Gages – Sensing Mechanisms

Spiral Tube
•use the same principle as the “C”
tube but movement is bigger

•for low pressures

• the deflection of the free end of the tube is amplified due to

the spiral shape

• (the movement is bigger because the spiral tube is longer

than “C” tube).

• Commonly used for sensing low pressure changes e.g. gas-

expansion type thermometers
Pressure Gages – Sensing Mechanisms

Helical
Tube
• same characteristics as a spiral
tube but with greater strength and
resistance to fatigue due to better
stress distribution.

•Used in measuring ranges from

about 60 to 3000 Bar.
Pressure Gages – Sensing Mechanisms

Diaphragm
Capsule

The sensing element consists of two

thin corrugated sections welded
together, forming a capsule.

•Several diaphragm capsules can be assembled together to

amplify the movement

•Used in measuring very low pressures ranging from 0 to

around 600 mBar
Pressure Gages – Sensing Mechanisms

Bellows
• The sensing element consists of two
flanges connected to a flexible cylinder.

• Pressure applied to the interior of the

chamber causes it to deform in proportion
to the pressure.

They are mainly used in differential pressure

gages and pressure switches.
Pressure Gages
Pressure Gages – Accessories

Diaphragm
Seal
• Isolates the process fluid from the
fluid in the pressure gage

•Prevents fouling of the pressure gage

by corrosive or dirty process fluids
Pressure Gages – Accessories

Capillary
•Allows mounting of the pressure gage
farther away from the process
connection.

•Commonly used together with

diaphragm seals to isolate the pressure
gage from harsh process fluid
Pressure Gages – Accessories

Isolating Cock

-Isolating valve after the pressure tap

allows isolation of pressure gage and
the sensing line for maintenance
Pressure Gages – Accessories

Snubber

•Dampens pulsation of process

pressure
Pressure Gages – Accessories

Overrange
Protector
Isolates the gage or relieves the pressure
in the sensing line if the process pressure
goes above the overpressure capacity of
the gage
Pressure Gages – Accessories

Syphon
Coiled tube that traps condensate,
creating a buffer of fluid between the
pressure gage and the process, thus
keeping the gage from being subjected
to excessive temperatures.
Pressure Gages

Selection
and
Specification

Selection Parameters
• Measuring Range
• Dial Diameter Size
• Accuracy
• Sensing Element Type and Material
• Mounting Type & Connection Size
• Pointer Movement
• Case, Bezel Ring, Window, and Gasket Material
• Accessories
Pressure Gages

Measuring
Range

For best results, the operating ranges of pressure gages

should be between 25% to 75% of their measurement range
Pressure Gages

Dial
Diameter Size

•Dial Diameter Size – determine the size for readability

•Common sizes of field mounted gages
• 40
• 50
• 63
• 80
• 100
• 130
• 150
• 160 mm
Pressure Gages

Accuracy
Accuracy Classification

For common field-mounted gages

Class A
+/-1% of span between 25 – 75% of range
+/- 2% of span below 25% and above 75%
Class B
+/-2% of span between 25 – 75% of range
+/- 3% of span below 25% and above 75%
Class C
+/-3% of span between 25 – 75% of range
+/- 4% of span below 25% and above 75%
Class D
+/-5% of span between 25 – 75% of range
+/- 5% of span below 25% and above 75%
Pressure Gages

Accuracy
Accuracy Classification

For high accuracy gages

Class 1A (min recommended size 40mm)

+/-1.0% of span for the entire range

Class 2A (min recommended size 63mm)

+/- 0.5% of span for the entire range

Class 3A (min recommended size 110mm)

+/- 0.25% of span for the entire range

Class 4A (min recommended size 210mm)

+/- 0.10% of span for the entire range
Pressure Gages

Mounting
Connection

•Connection Thread Style:

•Parallel (BSP)
•NPT
•Connection size
•½”, ¾”
Pressure Gages

Movement,
Case, Bezel Ring,
Window, Gasket…
…determine the appropriate
material selection for the rest of
the gage

•Degree of ingress protection (e.g. IP32, IP54)

•Mounting Position: Bottom / Back connection, Back / Front Flange,
Flangeless
•Movement Material: Copper Alloy, SS, etc…
•Case Material: Cast Iron, Steel, Aluminum, Phenol, etc…
•Bezel Ring Material: SS, Chrome Plated Steel, Polypropylene, etc…
•Bezel Ring Mounting: Screwed, Hinged, Slip-on, etc…
•Window Material: Glass, Laminated Safety Glass, Plexiglass, etc…
•Gasket Material: Elastomer, Nitrile Rubber, etc…
Pressure Gages

Options &
Accessories
Select options and accessories if
required…

•Overpressure/Overrange protection
•Blow-out disc – diverts process fluid away from operator in case of tube rupture
•Vibration damping – oil fill, etc…
•Diaphragm seals – corrosion protection
•Capillary – distant mounting
•Gage Cocks – maintenance isolation
•Snubber – pressure pulsations
•Siphon – prevention of excessive temperature
Pressure Gages

Data
Sheet
Pressure Gages

Mounting &
Installation of
Pressure Gages
Pressure Gages - Installation

Connection to Process
Pressure taps on tanks and pipes should be located
where dirt particles do not easily enter. Tap positions
must not allow motion of the fluid to cause false
pressure readings
Pressure Gages - Installation

Mounting

Pressure gages should be mounted vertically

Pressure Gages - Installation

Isolation

A pressure gage must always be installed with an

isolating cock to isolate the instrument for
maintenance or to stop a leak.
Pressure Gages - Installation

Threaded Connection
Parallel thread BSP
•Place a gasket between the end of the thread and around the
spigot
Conical Thread NPT
•Metal-to-metal tightness is achieved without any gasket but a
Teflon tape wound around the thread provides better tightness
Pressure Gages - Installation

Mounting/Tightening
When installing the pressure gage into a threaded
fitting, never turn the case by hand. Mount it with a
wrench by means of the hexagon or flats provided on
the socket
Pressure Gages - Installation

Vibration
• Vibration of the pressure gage must be avoided to prevent excessive wear
of the mechanism.
• Set the gage on a rigid support that is not affected by the pipe vibration.
• A flexible small diameter capillary can be placed between the gage and the
pipe connection as vibration and pulsation dampener
• If vibration isolation through the above method is not possible, choose
liquid filled pressure gages.
Pressure Gages - Installation

Pulsation
For pulsating applications, a dampener should be fitted between
the pressure gage and the pipe.

Capillary, diaphragm, or pressure snubber may be used for

pulsating pressure application.
Pressure Gages - Installation

Corrosion

If Stainless Steel or Monel do not provide sufficient guarantee

against corrosion, place a diaphragm seal between the gage and
process fluid.
Pressure Gages - Installation

Over-temperature
•If the “tube-socket” joint is
• soft-soldered - the maximum permanent temperature = 80 oC.
•brazed - the maximum permanent temperature = 120 oC.
•arc welded - the maximum permanent temperature = 250 oC.

•A short connecting pipe of small cross-section, placed in-between the hot fluid and the
pressure gage is sometimes efficient enough to lower the temperature to acceptable
levels.
Pressure Gages - Installation

Over-
temperature
For over-temperature protection in
condensing vapor application, a
siphon can be used after having been
initially filled with process fluid
condensed at cold temperature.

In all cases, the first pressure increase must be

done slowly to allow the hot fluid in the
connecting pipe or siphon to cool down.
Pressure Gages - Installation

Over-pressure
-A good pressure gage can typically withstand overpressure 30% of
maximum graduation up to 100 bars and 15% of maximum
graduation over 100 Bars.

-If overpressures are higher than those mentioned

above, overrange protection devices or an overload
device with diaphragm seal must be mounted between
the gage and the process.
Pressure Switches

Pressure Switch Elements

Pressure switches turns an electric circuit on or off at a preset
pressure.

The movement from the sensing element (diaphragm, bourdon,

bellows, etc…) actuates an electrical signal by changing the
position of electrical contacts in a switch.
Pressure Switches

Pressure
Switch
Elements
Electro-mechanical switching
mechanism may be a mercury
switch or a micro switch.
Pressure Switches

Pressure Switch Elements

Electric snap switches consist of a snap acting mechanism built
into a molded case.

A lever is spring formed to provide positive snap action when the

actuating plunger drives the lever to the transfer point.

When the actuating force is relieved, the lever snaps back to its
normal position.
Pressure Switches

Pressure Switch Elements

•Electronic switching devices use bridge circuits to convert the
transducer signals, compare it with the setpoint value, and
activate a transistor relay if the setpoint value is reached.

•Electronic transducers used as pressure sensor include strain

gage, capacitive, and piezo-electric transducers.
Pressure Switch

Data
Sheet
Pressure Switch

Data
Sheet
Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Transmitters
•used for remote pressure measurements

•allow operator to monitor, record, and/or control the

process from the control panel

•Has higher accuracy than field pressure gages

•Has faster response time than field pressure gages

Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Transducers

•converts the mechanical action of the

sensor (bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragm)
into an electrical signal
Pressure Transmitter

Transducers Elements
•Pressure Sensing Element – e.g. bellows, bourdon tube

•Primary Conversion Element – converts the mechanical action

into an electrical analog signal, usually in the form of resistance or
voltage (millivolts)

•Secondary Conversion Element – converts the analog signal

into a standard signal e.g. 4-20 mA
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer Types
•Pressure transducers usually generate output signals in the millivolt range
(spans of 100 mV to 250 mV).

•When used in transmitters, these are amplified to the voltage level (1 to 5

V) and converted to current loops, usually 4-20 mA dc .
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer Types
•Strain Gage
•Capacitance
•Potentiometric
•Resonant Wire
•Piezoelectric
•Magnetic
•Optical
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer Types

Strain Gage
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Strain Gage
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Capacitance

•high-frequency, high-voltage oscillator charge the sensing electrode elements.

•deflection of the diaphragm causes a change in capacitance that is detected by a
bridge circuit.
•wide rangeability, from high vacuums in the micron range to 10,000 psig (70 MPa).
•ΔP as low as 0.01 inches of water can readily be measured.
•they do not drift much.
•accuracy within 0.1% of reading or 0.01% of full scale.
•typical temperature effect is 0.25% of full scale per 1000° F.
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Potentiometric

• Consist of precision potentiometer whose wiper arm is mechanically

linked to a Bourdon or bellows element.
•movement of the wiper arm across the potentiometer converts the
sensor deflection into a resistance measurement, using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit.
•can detect pressures between 5 and 10,000 psig (35 KPa to 70 MPa)
•Accuracy:between 0.5% and 1% of full scale, excluding drift and the
effects of temperature.
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Resonant Wire

•a wire is gripped between a static member and the sensing diaphragm

•oscillator circuit causes the wire to oscillate at its resonant frequency.
•as pressure changes the wire tension, the resonant frequency also shifts. A digital
counter circuit detects the shift precisely
•can be used for low differential pressure, absolute and gage pressures.
•can detect absolute pressures from 10 mm Hg, differential pressures up to 750 in. water,
and gauge pressures up to 6,000 psig (42 MPa).
•Typical accuracy is 0.1% of calibrated span, with six-month drift of 0.1%
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Piezoelectric

•applying pressure to a crystal causes deformation resulting to a flow of electric charge

(lasting a few seconds). that can be measured as an indication of the pressure
•the crystal sensor can be called electrostatic, piezoresistive, or resonant.
•The output is expressed in “relative” pressure units w/ reference to the initial condition
of the crystal.
•can detect pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70 MPa).
•Typical accuracy is 1% FS; Temperature effect 1% FS per 1000° F
•Resonant piezoelectric sensors can be used for spans from 0-15 to 0-900 psia (or for ΔP
spans from 0-6 to 0-40 psid
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Magnetic
(Inductance)

Inductance:
Alternating current is applied to the primary coil in the center,
if the core also is centered, equal voltages will be induced in the secondary coils (#1 and
#2).
Because the coils are wired in series, this condition will result in a zero output.
As the the core moves, the differential in the voltages induced in the secondary coils is
proportional to the pressure causing the movement.
Accuracy : 0.5% FS
Ranges: 0-30 to 0-10,000 psig
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Magnetic
(Reluctance)

Reluctance:
Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition offered by a magnetic
substance to magnetic flux.
If a change in pressure changes the gaps in the magnetic flux paths of the two cores, the
ratio of inductances L1/L2 will be related to the change in process pressure
Accuracy: 0.5% FS
Ranges: 1” H2O to 10,000 psig
Recommended for application requiring high resolution over a small range
Pressure Transmitter

Transducer
Types
Optical

A light emitting diode (LED) is used as the light source, and a vane blocks some of the
light as it is moved by the diaphragm.

As the process pressure moves the vane between the source diode and the measuring
diode, the amount of light received changes.

Ranges : 0-5 to 0-60,000 psig

Accuracy : 0.1% FS
Pressure Transmitter

Transducers Types
•Strain Gage
•Capacitance
•Potentiometric
•Resonant Wire
•Piezoelectric
•Magnetic
•Optical
Pressure Transmitter

Selection &
Specification

1. Determine the needs of Process Application –

• Select the range
• good repeatability often is more important than absolute accuracy.
• If process pressures vary over a wide range, transducers with good linearity and low
hysteresis are preferred.
• two conflicting considerations: the instrument’s accuracy and its protection from
overpressure.
Pressure Transmitter

Selection &
Specification

2. Determine the signal communication requirements:

• Conventional Transmitters – 4-20 mA signal output
• Smart Transmitters – 4-20 mA signal output with digital communication capability for
configuration, calibration, zero/span adjustments, diagnostics, etc…
• Fieldbus Communications – Profibus, Foundation Fieldbus, etc… allows multiple
transmitters to communicate through a single bus cable; measurement signal,
configuration, adjustments, diagnostics are possible through bus communication.
Pressure Transmitter

Data
Sheet
Pressure Transmitter

Data
Sheet
Pressure Transmitter

Installation
•Maintenance Access.
•Instrument Line Sizing.
•Instrument line length.
•Instrument Line Slope.
•Vents & Drains.
•Flexibility of Instrument Lines.
Pressure Transmitter

Maintenance &
Calibration
•Instrument Shop Facilities
• Shop Equipment
•Documentation System
Pressure Transmitter

Maintenance &
Calibration
•Preventive Maintenance
•Visual Inspection
•Blowdown & Venting
•Cleaning & Lubrication
•Calibration
Pressure Transmitter

Calibration

1. Turn on the transmitter and allow the internal components to reach normal operating
temperature.
2. Use deadweight tester or portable regulated air supply to apply the minimum range (0%) value
to the transmitter
3. Adjust the zero to get exactly 4 mA output, indicated in a precision milliammeter.
4. Apply maximum range (100%) value to the transmitter.
5. Adjust the span to get a reading of exactly 20 mA.
6. Apply middle range (50%) value to the transmitter.
7. Adjust the linearity to bring the output signal to within the specified tolerance of 12 mA (half
scale output current)