Unit 2 Ancient Indian History

India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning

back to the beginning of human civilization. It begins
with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in
farming communities in the southern lands of India. The
history of India is punctuated by constant integration of
migrating people with the diverse cultures that surround
India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron,
copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the
Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is
indicative of the progress that this part of the world had
made. By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had
emerged as a region of highly developed civilization.
 The Indus Valley Civiliation
• The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely
known as Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of
South Asia, what today is Pakistan and Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the
largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.
Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological Department
of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities,
viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings and other things
like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery
wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization
flourished in this region.

The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them
were the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyans and Pallavas. During the Sangam period, Tamil culture
began to spread outside Tamilakam. Ancient Tamil settlements were also found in Sri
Lanka (Sri Lankan Tamils) and the Maldives (Giravarus).
The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the
people lived in well-planned and well-built towns, which were also the
centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that these
were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well
looked after. They had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system.
The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys.

The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat
and barley constituted their staple food. They consumed vegetables and
fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also show that
they wore cotton as well as woollen garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan
culture came to an end. Among various causes ascribed to the decay of
Indus Valley Civilization are the recurrent floods and other natural causes
like earthquake, etc.
 Vedic civilisation
• The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the
history of ancient India. It is named after the Vedas,
the early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic
Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a
region that now consists of the modern Indian states
of Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with
Hinduism, which is another name for religious and
spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas.
• The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great
epics of this period.
 The buddhist Era
• During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers
(Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC.
Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu
and the Licchavis of Vaishali

Alexander's Invasion
• In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river Indus he
advanced towards Taxila. He then challenged king Porus , ruler of
the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab. The Indians
were defeated in the fierce battle, even though they fought with
elephants, which the Macedonians had never before seen.
Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had
defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory.
 Gupta Dynasty
• After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important
dynasty. The Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age
of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was
Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the
daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a
turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in
dowry from the Lichhavis. From Pataliputra, he laid the
foundation of his empire and started conquering many
neighbouring states with the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over
Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His
kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad.
Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of
Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.
 Harshavardhana
• With the commencement of the 7th century, Harshavardhana
(606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of Thaneshwar and
Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By 612
Harshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India.
• In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in
the Deccan, which was then ruled by Pulakesin II. But the
Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he
was defeated. Harshavardhana is well known for his religious
toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations. He
maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys,
who exchanged ideas of the Chinese rulers and developed
their knowledge about each other.
 Medieval India
• Medieval period is an important era in Indian
History for the development in the field of art,
languages, culture and religion.
• So, here we have compiled a Comprehensive Study
Material on “History of Medieval India” which is
divided into five major sections with the history of
the Rajputs, Cholas, Bahmanis, Delhi Sultanate
rulers, Mughals, Marathas, the invading Turks,
Vijayanagara kings and number of other historical
events during that period.
 The east Indian Company
• After Portugal handed over Bombay in 1661 to the British East
India Company, the company began recruiting Christians from
other parts of the Konkan — Mangalore and Goa. This was
also when Mumbai’s history as a great cosmopolitan port
began. In order to differentiate the ethnic community of
Bombay from the migrants, they began to call themselves the
Original East Indians, after the company.
• The East India Company was an English company formed for
the exploitation of trade with East and Southeast Asia
and India. Incorporated by royal charter on December 31,
1600, it was started as a monopolistic trading body so that
England could participate in the East Indian spice trade
 History of India’s Independence
• Over the course of history, India has faced several invasions. While most of
the invaders made their intentions clear right from the word go, the British
managed to bring India under their control through a business venture. It
all started with the British East India Company, which started off as a mere
joint-stock company, but slowly went about spreading its wings and
influence, before the British government finally took control of the entire
country.

• The British company had landed in India in the early seventeenth century
as traders, but began interfering in Indian affairs around 1750s. After the
battle of Plassey (1757), it began to transform from a trading company to a
ruling force. As the British began to spread their tentacles over a large part
of India, the exploitation of local resources and people began in full force.
The British were concerned just about consolidating their rule and power.
• The British rule had a damaging effect on the social,
economic, cultural and political life of Indians, which
gradually forced common masses and rulers to rise in
revolt against the British rule. Several agrarian, tribal, and
political rebellions broke out against the foreign rule, but
it was the rebellion of 1857, which proved as a launch pad
for all the subsequent struggles against the British rule.

• The continuously increasing awareness, contact with the

outside world, and the urge to free the motherland, gave
rise to an organized movement by the end of the
nineteenth century, which uprooted the 200-year-old
British rule in 1947.
 The History of British Colonialism in India
After the fall of the Mughal Empire, the British gained the support of many local rulers
by offering them help against their adversaries. Since the British were equipped with
huge cannons and newer war technology their support proved helpful to many Indian
rulers. In exchange for their support, the East India Company managed to set up trading
centers in places like Madras, Calcutta and Bombay. The British gradually started to
extend their fortification. When they were asked to stop their extension by Siraj-ud-
daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, they defeated him in the Battle of Plassey (1757). This win
against Siraj-ud-daulah played a crucial role in colonizing the whole of India.

Early Rebellions Against the British Rule

• For their short-term benefit, many Indian rulers supported the British colonization in
India, but many of them opposed the idea of foreign rule. This created a conflict
between Indian rulers, which was further used by the British to their advantage. Among
the early rebellion, South Indian rulers, such as Puli Thevar, Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan,
Pazhassi Raja, Rani Velu Nachiyar, Veerapandiya Kattabomman, Dheeran Chinnamalai,
Maruthu Pandiyar, etc. revolted against the British and fought several wars and battles.
 Hyder Ali & Dheeran Chinnamalai
• Many rulers like Hyder Ali and Dheeran Chinnamalai sought the help of Maratha
rulers in their fight against the British.

• Agitated by the ill-impact of the British rule on the social, cultural, tribal, and
economic fabric of society, many individuals like Sidhu Murmu, Kanhu Murmu and
Tilka Manjhi stood up against the British colonization.

• While the British managed to defeat bigger ruler like Tipu Sultan via local alliances
(supporting one ruler against the other), they did not have must difficulty in
suppressing local agrarian and tribal rebellions. The British not only used better
weapons, but they also resorted to devious tactics like the ‘divide and rule policy’ in
to consolidate their rule and might.
•
• Even though the British tried their best to suppress rebellions across India, these
revolts would not stop as the British not only subjected people to a foreign rule but
also exploited people economically.
 The Revolt of 1857

• Often referred to as the ‘First War of Indian Independence,’ the revolt of 1857 was the
result of a series of incidents, but the immediate reason for the revolt was the issue of
‘greased cartridges.’ The East India Company mistreated the Indian soldiers and
discriminated between the Indian and the European soldiers. While the soldiers knew
that the British were using factors like religion and caste against them, the news of the
newly introduced Enfield P-53 rifles using cartridges made out of fat extracted from beef
and pork sparked a widespread rebellion against the British. Since the soldiers had to
bite the cartridge in order to load the rifle, it did not go down well with the Hindu and
Muslim soldiers as it hurt their religious belief. Since consuming beef and pork is against
the religious beliefs of Hindus and Muslims respectively, the allegation convinced Indian
soldiers that the British were trying to convert them into Christians.

• This, along with many other factors, played a crucial role in the revolt of the soldiers.
Many Indian rulers from different states followed suit and locked horns with the British.
At the end of it all, at least 800,000 people, including many civilians, were killed. As a
result of the rebellion, the British government took control of the administration of India
from the East India Company.
 Organized Movements
• The revolt of 1857 was the first large-scale rebellion against the British rule, and inspired
the future generation to fight for the independence of the motherland. Slowly and
gradually many organizations were formed that started to demand for some sort of self-
governance and rights for Indians.

• In 1867, Dadabhai Naoroji founded the East India Association, while Surendranath
Banerjee came up with the Indian National Association in 1876.
• With more and more people coming up with the demand for more rights, several
prominent people came forward and decided to form a platform that will demand for self
rights and self governance. It led to the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

• Since the British failed to grant even the moderate demands set by the Congress, many
Indians started questioning the moderate leaders of the Congress, and advocated more
radical approach in dealing with the British, which gave rise to several revolutionary
organizations that advocated use of force and violenceWorks done by socio-religious
groups like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj played a crucial role in creating awareness
among Indians. The works of reformers like Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, V.
O. Chidambaram Pillai and Subramanya Bharathy evoked a sense of nationalism among
Indians
 The Rise of Nationalism
– Radical leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak straightway pushed
for self-rule for Indians. Tilak was also saddened by the fact
that the education system of the British government did
not portray India’s history and culture in a positive light. He
advocated complete freedom (Swaraj) and managed to
inspire many Indians with his famous slogan, “Swaraj is my
birthright and I shall have it.” He was joined by other like-
minded leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai.
The trio together came to be known as ‘Lal-Bal-Pal,’ but
they were expelled from the Congress for advocating
violence and disorder. However, they had done enough to
instill nationalism into the minds of thousands of Indians
 The Partition of Bengal

• Since pre-independent Bengal was as big as France in terms of its

geography, the then Viceroy and Governor-General, Lord Curzon, ordered
the partition of Bengal in 1905. He argued that the partition would lead to a
better administration and ease the rising conflict between the Hindus and
the Muslims.
• The Indian nationalists, however, believed that the move was an attempt to
slow down the momentum gathered by the recent nationalist movements.
They also believed that Lord Curzon was employing the divide and rule
policy to create a rift between Hindus and Muslims. This led to a large-scale
protest against the British rule, including boycotting British products and
publications of several rebellious newspapers and articles. The government
was eventually forced to reunite Bengal in 1911. But a new partition, based
on the languages spoken, was created soon after. The partition of Bengal left
an indelible mark on the people and political scenario of Bengal.
 The Rise of the Muslim League

• In 1886, Syed Ahmed Khan, an Islamic reformist and philosopher, founded the
All India Muhammadan Educational Conference. The conference was set-up in
an attempt to provide quality education to Indian Muslims. The conference
organized annual meetings to discuss various methods to improve the quality
of education, among other things. In 1906, during the 20th session of the
conference, the members decided to set up a political party called the ‘All
India Muslim League.’ After the creation of the All India Muslim League, the
party strived towards achieving equal civil rights for the Muslim population in
India. Slowly and gradually, the Muslim league started to propagate the
theory that the Indian National Congress was a pro-Hindu outfit, and that the
political party was incapable of ensuring equal rights for the Muslim
community in India. This belief found many takers, and slowly and gradually
more and more Muslim leaders started contemplating the idea of creating
another political entity where Muslims would form the majority.
 National Movement & the First World War

• The national movement started picking-up at the end of the nineteenth century
and by the turn of the new century it had gathered a critical mass, which would
propel it further in the coming years. More and more people were joining hands
with nationalist leaders and the Congress to raise the demand of self-rule. Led by
leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and V. O.
Chidambaram Pillai, more and more commoners began to protest against the
British government.

• Though the Indian National Congress was still advocating the importance of the
British rule, people had begun to participate in mass movements, which inspired
others as well. Meanwhile, just before the beginning of the First World War, the
British government had promised special benefits to India in return for their
support during the First World War. As many as 1.3 million Indian soldiers were
sent to places like the Middle East, Europe and Africa to fight for the British in
the First World War. Also, many individual rulers of different princely states
supported the British by sending large supplies of money, food and ammunition.
 The Arrival of Mahatma Gandhi

– Gandhi had mastered the methods of civil disobedience through

non-violent means in South Africa, where he worked as a barrister.
In 1914, many political prisoners were freed by General Jan Smuts,
thanks to Gandhi's non-violent protests. Impressed by his methods,
a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress Gopal Krishna
Gokhale requested Gandhi to return to India and join the national
movement. Upon his arrival, Gandhi joined the Indian National
Congress and accepted Gopal Krishna Gokhale as his mentor. He
then went on to establish Satyagraha ashram and led a Satyagraha
campaign in 1917. For the next three years, Gandhiji led many non-
violent protests that included Satyagraha and fasting. The Kheda
Satyagraha and the Champaran satyagraha were some of the early
movements where he applied the concept of Satygraha to fight for
the rights of farmers and other peasants
 The Non-Cooperation Movement
• In 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered to shoot at a peaceful gathering of men,
women and children in Jallianwala Bagh, who had gathered to celebrate Baisakhi and to
condemn the arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satya Pal. This inhuman act of the British
sent shockwaves across India, and received strong criticism and protests all over India.
Mahatma Gandhi too denounced this cowardly behavior and strongly condemned it.
• The national movement was slowly building-up and the Jallianwalah Bagh incident played
an important role in the start of the ‘Non-cooperation Movement.’ It was the first big
Satyagraha movement under Gandhi’s leadership. He requested the support of other
political and religious leaders and gave a call to Indians to stop using British products.
• Gandhiji advocated the use of Khadi over British textiles. He also asked government
servants to quit their jobs, and return the British titles and honors. Many Indians refused to
pay taxes and many teachers and lawyers gave up their respective profession. The non-co-
operation movement became a huge success throughout India until it was called off by
Gandhiji in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident, in which three civilians and 22
policemen were killed.
• The Non-cooperation movement had seen an unprecedented and large-scale participation
from the people of all regions and status. The entire country was transformed into a
different zone and the protests were largely successful, but the unfortunate incident at
Chauri Chaura forced Gandhi to call the movement off. He said that people were still not
ready for mass-movements of this nature.
• The decision to call-off the non-cooperation movement left many disappointed and was
criticized by several leaders.
 Revolutionary Movement & its Role in Freedom Movement

• While the Indian National Congress, led by leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale
and Mahatma Gandhi, advocated civil disobedience and non-violent protests,
many firebrand leaders believed in overthrowing the British with the use of
force. The revolutionary movement had begun as early as the late 1750s, but
it was during the Partition of Bengal that it began to take shape. Under the
leadership of Barin Ghosh, many revolutionaries began to collect arms and
explosives. They even started manufacturing bombs and some were even
sent to foreign countries to acquire knowledge about bomb-making and other
military training.
• By 1924, Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was formed and firebrand
revolutionaries like Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Ashfaqullah Khan,
Ramprasad Bismil, Shivaram Rajguru, Surya Sen, etc. began to involve
themselves in various revolutionary activities. Some of the famous
revolutionary activities include Alipore bomb conspiracy, Chittagong armoury
raid, Kakori train robbery, Delhi-Lahore conspiracy case, etc.
• Azand Hind Fauz
• Subhas Chandra Bose quit the Indian National Congress and travelled to
many countries to seek help for India’s independence. Bose wanted to
raise an Indian army to fight against the British. Based on Hitler’s advice,
he went to Japan and formed the Indian National Army (Azad Hind
Government). During the Second World War, the Indian National Army
managed to capture Andaman and Nicobar islands with the help of the
Japanese army. However, the setback to Japan in the Second World War
impacted the prospects of the INA as well and it’s march was blocked on
the Border and many soldiers and officers were arrested
 Quit India Movement
• As the World War II progressed, Mahatma Gandhi intensified
his protests for the complete independence of India. He
drafted a resolution calling for the British to Quit India. The
'Quit India Movement' or the 'Bharat Chhodo Andolan' was
the most aggressive movement launched by the Indian
National Congress. Gandhi was arrested on 9th August 1942,
and was held for two years at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune.
The Quit India Movement came to an end by the end of 1943,
when the British gave hints that complete power would be
transferred to the people of India. Gandhi called off the
movement which resulted in the release of 100,000 political
prisoners.
 Partition & Independence of India
• Though prominent leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were not
willing to accept the formula of partition based on religion, but communal
clashes between religious groups hastened the creation of Pakistan. The
independence cum partition proposal offered by the British Cabinet Mission in
1946 was accepted by the Congress. Sardar Patel convinced Gandhi that it was
the only way to avoid civil war and the Mahatma reluctantly gave his consent.
The British Parliament passed the famous Indian Independence Act 1947, and on
August 14, Pakistan was declared a free nation. Few minutes later at 12:02 am,
India became a democratic nation, much to the joy and relief of the entire Indian
subcontinent.
• After India's independence, Gandhiji focused on peace and unity among the
Hindus and Muslims. He began a fast-unto-death in Delhi, asking for all
communal violence to be stopped and the payment of Rs. 55 crores, as per the
Partition Council agreement, to be made to Pakistan. Ultimately, all political
leaders conceded to his wishes.
• The Constituent Assembly was given the responsibility of creating the
constitution. Headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the constitution was adopted on 26
November 1949. On 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India came into effect.
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