SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEDIMENTARY

PETROLOGY (GY 260)

Dr. Cassy Mtelela

 Sediments to sedimentary rocks

Weathering structures
seen in ancient
terranes

Lithification due to:

1. Compaction
Transport shown by
(squeezing out water) sedimentary structures
2. Diagenesis
(precipitation of
cements)
 Three physical properties of
sediments
 - Size
 - Shape
 - Surface Texture
 Grain size is the nominal
diameter of a grain
 Grain size is one of the most
important criteria in
classifying clastic
sedimentary rocks
 Grains size is given by linear
scale i.e. mm, inch etc and
logarithimic scale phi (φ )
whereby φ = -log2d
d = grain diameter in mm
φ value Particle Wentworth Rock name
diameter (mm) grade
-8 >256 Boulders Conglomerate
-6 64 Cobbles
-2 4 Pebbles Conglomerate
-1 2 Granules Granulestone
0 1 V. C. Sand Sandstone
1 0.5 C. Sand Sandstone
2 0.25 Med. Sand Sandstone
3 0.0125 Fine Sand Sandstone
4 0.0625 V.F. Sand Sandstone
8 0.0039 Silt Siltstone
<0.0039 Clay Claystone
 Any clastic sedimentary rock is composed
of a wide range of grain size.
 The procedure of determining grain size
distribution in sediments is known as
Grain Size Analysis.
 Methods of determining Grain are:
i) Visual method by comparing with
known
samples. - (Loose and indurated rock)
ii) Sieving – (loose sediments)
iii) Manual measuring of each grain (loose &

indurated large grains)

iv) Thin section under microscope (rock)
v) Settling velocity method
 Induration Sediment Grade Method
Boulder Individual grain
Loose to Pebble manually
Granule Sieve,
to Clay Settling vel.
Boulder Individual grain
Lithified to Pebble manually
Granule-sand Thin section
Clay X-ray analysis &

scanning electron microscope

 Displaying and analysing grain size
measurements depend on the purpose.
 The two main purposes of G/size
Analysis are: i) Classifying rocks
ii) Determining Depositional Environment

Grain size Data can be displayed as:

i) Tables
ii) Histograms
iii) Grainsize - frequency normal curves
iv) Cumulative percentile curves

 Statistical Parameters that can be

calculated from these Graphs include:
Class Mode, Median, Mean, Sorting, Kurtosis,
Skewness
A: Those describing Central Tendency
 Mode = Largest class interval
 Median = Separate 50% of sample; (50th

percentile)
 Mean = Average class interval (Average of
25th and
75th percentile)
 The shapes of grains are based on the ratios
between Length, Breadth and Thickness.
 There are four shapes:
i) Equant – like cubic and sphere
ii) Prismatic/roller
iii) Blade
iv) Disc
 Grain shapes are controlling by parent
rock/mineral type and subsequent
processes. Example:
 Pebbles from slates and schists will be
bladed and then discoid.
 Prismatic minerals like tourmalline will
form roller grains.
 Grains from isotropic equant minerals like
pyrite, garnet, quartz will be spherical.
Sphericity is the extent a particle shape
approaches a sphere.
Numerically it expressed as
Sph. = surface area of the particle
surface area of a sphere of equal volume

Beside mineral/rock type sphericity is also

controlled by the degree of abrasion
taking place as grains are being
transported.
 Surface Texture includes:
i) Surface markings and lustre
ii) Angularity/Roundness

Surface markings & lustre. Under Electron

microscope
i) Water-deposited sand grains are
characterized by V-shaped percussion pits
and grooves. The surface is clear but
translucent.
ii) Glacial sand grains grains show concoidal
fractures and irregular angles micro-
topography. A hand specimen will show
striations and facets.
iii) Eolian sands show flaky surface pattern.
The surfaces are shinny (desert varnish)
 This is a measure of the degree of
sharpness of corners of a grain
 Nummerically it is given as by Wadell

(1932) as
Roundness = Average radius of corners
-- radius of maximum
inscribed circle
 Grains breaking from parent rocks are
angular. They loose their angularity through
abrasion on transportation by fluids (water
and air).
 Hence roundness of sediments increases
with distance from their source.
 Roundness is also controlled by the
softness/hardness of minerals/rocks. e.g.
Calcite will round faster than quartz if
subjected to same transport condition.
Grain Size Distribution (Sorting)
I. ALLOCHTHONOUS SEDIMENTS
 Classification

- Sandstone and rudites

- Mudstone and siltstone
- Pyroclasts

II. AUTOCHTHONOUS SEDIMENTS

- Chemical sediments
- Biological sediments
- Biochemical sediments
 We have already seen that the
classification of sediments on the basis of
grain size will give Conglomerate,
Sandstone, Siltstone and Mudstone and
their intermediates
 Beside grain size these sedimentary
rocks can classified on the basis of:
- Composition
- Surface texture of grains
- Origin of grains
 Sandstone is composed of three main
components:
- Framework
- Matrix
- Cement
Framework is made up of large particles which
normally support the whole rock
Matrix fill the inter-framework spaces
Cement binds the clastic particles( framework
and matrix)
 These are fragments of rocks ejected out
of an explosive volcano thrown into the
air and then fall down. Some of such
sediment may however undergo erosion
by final deposition.
 Sediment maturity Index is defined as the
extent a sediment has been affected by
surface processes.
 Chemical maturity Index is based on the
amount of stable mineral (Quartz) versus
unstable minerals (Feldspar and Rock
fragment).
 A sedimentary rock with high percentage of
quartz has undergone intensive weathering
and reworking
 Physical (textural) maturity is determined
by
i) the degree of sorting i.e. the less the
matrix, the more mature is the sediment.
ii) The degree of angularity i.e. the rounded
sediments are more mature.
 The bulk of minerals in sandstone have a
density of around 2.7 gm/cc
 Very few minerals have a density of 3
gm/cc and above. These are known as
Heavy Minerals.
 They include: Garnet, Zircon, Epidote,
Magnetite, Ilmenite, Rutile Zircon, Gold,
Diamond, Amphibole, Casiterite, Titanite,
Staurolite, Kyanite etc.
 They occur in small quantity in
sandstone.
 They are used to determine the Provenace
whether Ignenous, Metamorphic or
Sedimentary
 They may be of economic importance if occur
in sufficient quantity to form a placer deposit
 May be used to determine the depth of burial
GY 260: FLUID FLOW, Sediment
dynamics & Sediment transport
 FLUIDS
Flood stage of Kasai River
Democratic Republic of Congo

GRAVITATIONAL, INERTIAL & VISCOUS FORCES ALL

IMPORTANT!
-Changes in these properties affect the ability of a
fluid to erode and transport sediment.
 NOT = liquids
 fluid = material with no shear strength &
will change shape under its own weight
 Air
 Water
 Crude Petroleum
 ice
 Magma/lava
 Glass
 most common fluids of geologic
importance are AIR and WATER.
 Fluid Density = mass per unit volume
 Influences the forces that act within a fluid
 Influences the movement of fluids downslope due to
gravity.
 Influences abilities of fluids to transport sediment.
 i.e. Water is 700x more dense than air.
 So can water or air transport larger particles?

 Depends on:
 Type and concentration of sediment in fluid
 Temperature- density increases as temp. decreases.
 Pressure
 Salinity
 Viscosity = measure of the ability of fluids to
flow
 Lower viscosity = flows more easily
 Dynamic Viscosity (µ) = measure of resistance of a fluid
to change in shape during flow.
 Kinematic Viscosity takes temperature change into
account.
 > temperature = < viscosity in water (to a point)
 > temperature = > viscosity in air (due to turbulence)
 Why the difference between air and water?
 Heating water- molecules increases molecular spacing and
decreases molecular cohesion.
 Heating air molecules causes them to move
Results: Microturbulence (colliding
molecules resist flow)
 Fluids in motion display two modes of
flow (Laminar vs. Turbulent) depending
on…
 flow velocity
 fluid viscosity
 bed roughness (surface fluid is flowing over)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nl75BGg9qdA
 At low rates of shear, fluids display a condition know as
LAMINAR FLOW (viscous flow), which is where paths of
flow (streamlines) are parallel to the boundary of the flow
= smooth flow, no mixing between layers
 Occurs at low velocity over smooth Beds

Examples:
-Ice Flows
-Mud-supported Debris
Flows
 At higher rates of shear, complex flow paths
appear; which include curved and spiral flow
paths known as vortices and eddies = Turbulent
Flow.
 This leads to mixing of streamlines.
 Most flow of air and water under normal
conditions is turbulent.
 E.g., turbidity currents, normal river flow
The Reynolds Number (Re) is a dimensionless
number used to determine whether flow is
laminar or turbulent.

=resistance to fluid
acceleration (intertial forces)

= resistance to fluid deformation

Re>2000 = turbulent flows
Re <2000, but >500 = transitional flow
Re<500 = laminar flows
Froude number is also a dimensionless number that
corresponds to the ratio between the inertial and
gravitational forces (i.e., the influence of gravity).
-It is used to define tranquil (Subcritical) vs. rapid
(Supercritical) Flow

u resistance to fluid acceleration

Fr  (intertial forces)
gd gravitational force

u=flow velocity; d=flow depth; gd=celerity (wave velocity;

acceleration due to gravity velocity)

 F > 1 = Supercritical flow, rapid, or shooting flow

 F > 1 = Upper Flow regime (upper plane beds, antidunes)

 F < 1 = Subcritical flow, tranquil flow

 F < 1 = Lower Flow regime (ripples, dunes)
Flow strength is accurately

F<1
recorded via the
Progression of BEDFORMS that
develop on the bed of the flow.

There are two “Flow Regimes”

that produce the following
progression of bed forms:
Lower Flow Regime:
Ripples
Sand waves
Dunes

Upper Flow Regime:

F>1
Upper Plane Bed
Antidunes
Chutes & Pools

Prothero & Schwab, 2004

 Ripples
 form in sediment size ranging silt-coarse sand
 5-20 cm length; 0.5-~10 cm in height
 Dunes- same as ripples except for size
 Form in fine sand to gravel
 larger bedforms forming in higher flow velocities
 spacing or wavelength from <1 m to >1000m.

Boggs, 2007
 Show Ripple
formation Video

 Show Upper Plane

bed video

 Show Antidune
Video
F<1
Re <2000, but >500

What bedforms would you expect?

To get a realistic sense of reynolds number, check out this

Reynolds Number calculator online:
http://web.viu.ca/earle/geol201/reynolds-number.xls
F ~= 1
Re ~25000

What bedforms would you expect?

F>1 What bedforms would you expect?

Re ~360000
chutes & pools
antidunes
upper plane bed

ripples & dunes

lower plane bed
FLUID FLOW, Sediment dynamics &
Sediment transport
Stokes’ Law = settling velocity of particles
in a static fluid.
gD2 (ρg  ρf )
vg 
18μ

vg=settling velocity; D=grain diameter; g=grain

density;
f=fluid density; =dynamic viscosity
 Stokes’ Law only applies to fine (clay-
sized), quartz-density
To get a realistic sense grains in check
of Stokes Law, waterout this Stokes
Law calculator online:
http://web.viu.ca/earle/geol201/stokes-law.xls
• The rate of settling velocity can be estimated for
perfectly spherical particles.

- As you will see in that spreadsheet: stokes-law.xls, the

rates increase exponentially with size. However, there is
an upper limit to this. The rate of increase in settling
velocity levels off a little for coarse-sand and larger
particles.

- Also note that Stokes Law applies to perfect spheres.

Few sedimentary particles are even close to spherical,
and some are platy and needle-like. The less spherical,
the more slowly they will settle.
 Newtonian Fluids: No shear strength and do not undergo changes
in viscosity as the shear rate (v/d) increases (e.g. water).

 Non-Newtonian Fluids: No shear strength but undergoes changes

in viscosity as the shear rate increases.
 Formed by adding enough sediment to water -~30% sand
 mass flows (mud flows), some turbidity currents.

 Bingham Plastic: Plastic materials that have yield strength which

must be overcome before deformation occurs (e.g. some debris
flows w/large clasts). After yield point is exceeded, has constant
viscosity).
 Thrixotropic substances- special plastic that behave like substances
with variable viscosity after yield strength is overcome. E.g., ice.

Shear Strength = strength of a material against yield or failure

due to shear.
Shear Stress = force per unit area
Shear Rate = rate at which a shear is applied = fluid deformation.
 Newtonian fluids
 Rivers; air flow; low-density turbidity currents
 Video 1
 Non-Newtonian fluids
 Grain flows- shear thickening
 Leading to cohesive freezing
 Muddy debris flows-shear thinning
 SHOW DEBRIS FLOW VIDEO
 Non-Newtonian fluid demonstration
 The Bernoulli effect is the reduction of
pressure, proportional to the increase of flow
velocity as the flow encounters an obstacle
(sediment particle), leading to a lift force and
entrainment of the particle
 Drag forces and lift forces act together to cause
entrainment of sediment grains

 The boundary layer is that part of the flow

influenced by frictional effects (e.g., river bed)
Particle Entrainment: Hjulström’s Diagram

edload
Transport in
or t as b
sp
suspension Tran

(a description of flow competence)

Sediment transport modes in a
turbulent fluid
suspended load
 Bedload River
 (bedload video) Gravel Bed Transport.mov
Suspended load dominated

Bedload dominated