PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

UNIT 2
WEEK 1
THE COURSE OF PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT

oIntroductory video : National geographic Pregnancy 101

oHow can prenatal development be understood?

oWhere does it occur?

oWhen does it occur?

oConception occurs when a single sperm cell from a male unites

with an ovum (egg) in a female’s fallopian tube in a process called
fertilization
FERTILIZATION
PERIODS OF PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT

Period Length Key Events

Zygote 2 weeks
?

Embryo 6 weeks
?

Fetus 30 weeks ?
© Allyn & Bacon/Longman 2007
▪Prenatal development can be divided into equal three-month
periods, called trimesters.

▪The three trimesters are not the same as the three prenatal
periods

▪The germinal and embryonic periods occur in the first

trimester ; the fetal period begins toward the end of the first
trimester and continues through the second and third
trimesters
 GERMINAL PERIOD

▪Period of prenatal development that takes place in

the first two weeks after conception.
▪Creation of fertilized egg (zygote) , rapid cell
division , increasing complexity and differentiation
and implantation in the wall of the uterus.
▪Formation of Blastocyst - an inner mass of cells that
will eventually develop into the embryo
▪Beginnings of trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that
later provides nutrition and support for the embryo.
▪Implantation - attachment of the zygote to the
uterine wall, takes place about 10 to 14 days after
conception.
VISUAL SUMMARY OF FIRST WEEK
 THE EMBRYONIC PERIOD

▪Begins as the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall

▪Last from two to eight weeks after conception.
▪Rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear.
▪Three layers of cells form
▪ endoderm ( inner layer of cells) which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems.
▪ ectoderm (outermost layer) which will become the nervous system, sensory receptors (ears, nose, and
eyes, for example), and skin parts (hair and nails, for example).
▪ mesoderm (middle layer) which will become the circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system,
and reproductive system.
▪Organogenesis – Main process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal
development.
▪Life-support systems for the embryo develop rapidly - amnion, the umbilical cord and the
placenta.
THE PLACENTA AND UMBILICAL CORD

What are
the
functions
of these
various
parts of
the
embryo ?

Critical
period :
organs are
especially
vulnerable to
environment
al influences
 THE FETAL PERIOD

▪Lasts about seven months, is the prenatal period that extends from two
months after conception until birth in typical pregnancies.
▪Growth and development continue at a dramatic pace
▪From 3 – 6 months several changes take place in terms of length and
weight.
▪By the end of the first three months there is
▪Increased activity in the foetus- moving its arms and legs, opening and closing its
mouth, and moving its head.
▪Facial features ( face, forehead, eyelids, nose, and chin) are distinguishable are
distinguishable.
Placenta
DISCUSS :
THE FASCINATING HUMAN BRAIN
▪Ask : What makes the human brain distinct and complex from
other species ?
▪At birth, infants’ brains weigh approximately 25 percent of what
they will weigh in adulthood.
▪The basic architecture of the human brain is assembled during
the first two trimesters of prenatal development.
▪Typically, the third trimester of prenatal development and the
first two years of postnatal life are• characterized
Four important phases of the brain’s
by connectivity
and functioning of neurons (Nelson, development
2013). during the prenatal period
involve
• Neural tube
• Neurogenesis
• Neural migration
• Neural connectivity
▪Between 3 -6 months :
▪Limbs (upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs ) develop promoting greater
motor and muscular movements.
▪Sex determination is possible
▪In 1994, the Parliament of India enacted the
Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act : Discuss
▪Structures of the skin have formed—toenails and fingernails.
▪In many cultures –the end of fourth month is believed to confirm pregnancy as the
mother can actually feel the active movements of the foetus.
▪The foetus also assumes a preference for a particular position in the womb – called
the ‘lie’.
▪ The sixth month also is called the ‘age of viability’ – Why? (the fetus for the first
time has a chance of surviving outside the womb, although its breathing apparatus
is still immature).
▪Between the last three months

▪Fatty tissues develop and the functioning of various organ

systems—heart and kidneys steps up (especially during the
last two months of prenatal development)

▪During the eighth and ninth months, the fetus grows longer
and gains substantial weight.
 TERATOGENS

▪ Any agent capable of causing damage in terms of a birth

defect during the prenatal period

▪ Teratogenic in nature and the field of study that

investigates the causes of these defects is Teratology.

▪ The dose, the genetic susceptibility, and the time of

exposure to a particular teratogen influence both the
severity of the damage to an embryo or fetus and the type
of defect.
Teratogen
s and the
timings of
their
effects
 MATERNAL AND PATERNAL FACTORS

I Drugs And Medicines : Prescription, Non-prescription ,

Illegal,Psychoactive drugs
II Maternal diseases
III Maternal diet and Nutrition
IV Emotional states and stress
V Maternal age
VI Environmental pollutants
VII Paternal factors
I DRUGS : PRESCRIPTION & NON –
PRESCRIPTION, ILLEGAL, PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

Some examples
▪Alcohol
▪FAS & FAE
▪Nicotine and Tobacco
▪Physical & Behavioural abnormalities
▪Cocaine , Marijuana
▪Death
▪Pre term Video:
▪Low birth weight https://
▪Physical abnormalities youtu.be/
OtZ8nxbA1Fk
▪Behavioural abnormalities
II MATERNAL DISEASES

1.Rubella
▪Greatest damage during embryonic period, heart defects , eye cataracts,
deafness , urinary, intestinal and genital defects, bone defects
▪Determining immunity is a preventive measure.

2. STD’s :
▪AIDS
▪20-30% of cases –mother to child transmission
▪Treatment – Zidovudine (ZDV) or AZT
▪Syphillis

3. Toxoplasmosis
Common Diseases that may affect an Embryo, Fetus, or Newborn
 III & IV MATERNAL NUTRITION AND EMOTIONAL STATES

Nutrition
▪Children born to malnourished mothers are more
likely than other children to be malformed.
▪Being overweight before and during pregnancy can
also put the embryo or fetus at risk
▪Minerals and vitamins like folic acid, a B-complex
vitamin A are important for normal prenatal
development
▪High maternal anxiety and stress during pregnancy can have
long-term consequences for the offspring

▪Mother’s stress may also influence the fetus indirectly by

increasing the likelihood that the mother will engage in unhealthy
behaviors such as taking drugs and receiving poor prenatal care.

▪Discuss : What factors can cause stress during pregnancy? How

would maternal mental health affect the course of her pregnancy?
 V MATERNAL AGE

▪Two maternal age groups are of special interest: adolescents

and women 35 years and old – Why ?

▪What are some possible health risks

and outcomes ?

FIGURE 1.
Estimated risk of Down syndrome according to
maternal age.
 VI ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS

MR
▪Radiation Brain wave Low birth weight
abnormalities
Slow physical
▪Mercury Delayed cognitive growth
development
▪Lead Memory difficulty Small head size
Low IQ score Lack of physical
▪Pesticides Abnormal speech coordination

Discoloured skin Chromosomal

abnormalities
Childhood cancer Seizures
 VII PATERNAL FACTORS

a. Drugs/alcohol : Abnormal sperm, drug bearing sperm

during conception
b. Smoking – Impotence, Transmitting genetic abnormalities ;
‘passive’ smokers.
c. Lead exposure /Radiation
d. Dietary lacks
e. Paternal age
WEEK 2
 THE BIRTH PROCESS

▪First stage of labor

▪Contractions 15-20 minutes apart
▪Cervix fully dilates
▪Second stage of labor – delivery
▪Head passes through cervix
▪Baby emerges from body
▪Third stage of labor – afterbirth
▪Placenta expelled from body
Videos of Birth Process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5gSAzw-iP0Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dYu-0rOnLpA
 THE NEWBORN : SUBDIVISIONS

● Period of the Partunate (From birth to 15-30 minutes after birth) ;

Parturition

● Period of the Neonate ( From the former to the end of two weeks of
postnatal life)

● Postpartum period involves the period after childbirth or delivery

● What kind of adjustments and adaptations are expected of the

mother/father ?
THE BABY’S EXPERIENCE

● Stressful event - Hormones like adrenaline and

cortisol during the birth process protect the newborn

● Baby’s Appearance - 20 inches long, 3-3.5kg, bluish,

a bit misshapen

● Body weight, Body proportions (Head, chin, skull)

● Body systems – nourishment , circulatory , respiratory

, elimination of waste, temperature regulation.
THE ASSESSMENT OF THE NEWBORN

▪Apgar test
▪Heart rate, respiratory
effort, muscle tone,
color, reflex irritability
▪Scored 0-10 (0-2 each)
▪7+ good, 4 and lower
needs attention
 ASSESSING THE BABY’S CONDITION

▪Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS )

▪Several days after birth

▪Reactions to comforting and social stimuli
▪Unresponsiveness may indicate neurological problems
▪Can be a parent teaching tool ; Helping parents get to know their babies
▪Discovering individual & cultural differences
▪Predicting development based on changes in scores
STATES OF AROUSAL IN THE NEWBORN

Newborns spend a lot of time

sleeping and wake up only to
feed.
● Regular Sleep
● Irregular Sleep
● Drowsiness
● Quiet Alertness
● Waking Activity and Crying
(Papalia et al., 2011)
What do you observe in their
sleep patterns gradually?
 These early Reflexes resemble later
voluntary physical movement when
REFLEXES infants grow older!

Video :
https://youtu.be/Sv5SsLH70mY
● Reflexes allow infants to respond adaptively to their
environment before they have had the opportunity to learn.

● Reflexes have adaptive value :

● Survival through nourishment (Eg : Rooting, Sucking,
Moro)
● Self soothing & Self regulating (Eg: Grasping, Sucking)
● Attachment and bonding (Eg : Grasping)
● Forerunner to complex motor skills. This depends on the
rapid development of the brain -
https://youtu.be/R0fiu2S0_3M

● Some reflexes continue through life and some disappear a

few months after birth

● New perspective on infant reflexes is they are not

automatic or completely beyond the infant’s control
(Example)
Check your reflexes : Activity through
pear deck ) Please add more pictures….
 Moving into Infancy and childhood :
Body Growth and Change

•Patterns of growth

1. Cephalocaudal pattern
•Growth sequence that gradually
works from top to bottom of the
body

2.Proximodistal pattern
•Growth sequence in which growth
starts at the center of the body and
moves towards the extremities
Height and weight in infancy and
childhood
● In the first several days of life, most newborns lose 5 to 7 percent of their body
weight.

● Gradual weight gain per week during the first month ; doubled their birth weight
by the age of 4 months and have nearly tripled it by their first birthday

● Increase their birth length by about 40 percent by their first birthday.

● Growth more or less becomes gradual with no spurts ; the percentage of increase
in height and weight decreases with each additional year

● Sex differences are observed

● Growth patterns vary individually ; what do you think contributes to variations

(genetics , ethnicity and nutrition )
● Weight increase is due mainly to increases in the size of the
skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the size of some
body organs.

● Muscle mass and strength gradually increase as “baby fat”

decreases in middle and late childhood

● Changes in proportions are among the most pronounced

physical changes in middle and late childhood.

● Head circumference, waist circumference, and leg length

decrease in relation to body height
Discuss : Physical activity in growing
children
How do we develop perceptual and motor
abilities, and what happens to them as we age?

● Infants and children develop rolling, sitting,

standing, and other motor skills in a fixed order
and within specific time frames (Gessel, 1934)
through a maturational timetable

● According to dynamic systems theory, infants

assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting
(Thelen & Smith, 2006)

● To develop motor skills, what internal or

environmental factors would help them?
(Perceiving, motivated to act, use perception to
Types of motor skills

Gross motor skills: Motor skills that involve large-muscle

activities, such as walking.
Linked to posture (sensory information in the skin,
joints, and muscles, which tell us where we are in
space; in vestibular organs in the inner ear that
regulate balance and equilibrium; and in vision and
hearing (Thelen & Smith, 2006)
Locomotion and postural control are closely linked,
especially when walking upright (Soska, Robinson, &
Adolph, 2015).
▪ Fine motor skills: Motor skills that involve finely tuned
movements, such as any activity that requires finger
dexterity
Milestones in gross motor development
● The timing of these milestones, especially the later ones, may vary by
two to four months, and experiences can modify the onset of these
accomplishments (Adolph & Berger, 2015).

● Infants develop new skills with the guidance of their caregivers in a real-
world environment of objects, surfaces, and planes

● A larger size at birth (based on birth weight, birth length, or head

circumference) was the aspect of pregnancy and delivery that
showed the strongest link to reaching motor milestones earlier
▪ Motor accomplishments of the first year help them
become more independent, explore their environment
more extensively and initiate interaction with others
more readily.
▪ In the second year of life, toddlers become more
motorically skilled and mobile
▪ Take these examples: What would two-year-olds do with
the following?
● At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple movements just for the
sheer delight of performing these activities and take considerable
pride in showing off.

● At 4 and 5 years, they become more adventurous and show athletic

prowess

● Motor development becomes much smoother and more coordinated

than in early childhood.

● Organized sports are one way of encouraging children to be active

and to develop their motor skills
● Infants have hardly any control
over fine motor skills at birth,
but newborns do have many
components of what will
become finely coordinated arm,
hand, and finger movements.

● The onset of reaching and

grasping marks a significant
milestone in infants’ increasing
ability to interact with their
surroundings (Wiesen, Watkins,
● Infants refine their ability
to grasp objects by
developing two types of
grasp
○ Palmer
○ Pincer
● Infant’s ability to use tools
provides information
about how infants plan to
reach goals.
● Children’s gross and fine
motor skills are associated
with cognitive function
Recap : https://youtu.be/3_1Dbg2555A
WEEK 3 & 4
 Puberty and Adolescence

Puberty
● Period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal
and bodily changes that take place in early
adolescence
● Signs of sexual maturation
○ Menarche :A girl’s first menstrual period
● Growth spurt
○ Girls’ onset of puberty between 9 to 15 years of age
○ Boys’ onset of puberty between 10 to 17 years of age
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014
•Hormones: Powerful chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands and
carried through the bloodstream

•Hypothalamus (the command centre for the endocrine system) : The

hypothalamus is a small but critical brain structure. It regulates
eating and sexual behaviour, playing a central role in triggering
puberty

It signals the pituitary gland to release hormones, stimulating the

gonads (testes or ovaries) to produce sex hormones like
testosterone and estradiol.
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014
Testosterone

• Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone. It

triggers:Genital development (growth of testes and penis).
• Increased height.
• Deepening of the voice.
• Growth of facial and body hair.
• Increased muscle mass.
▪ Psychological Effects: May cause mood swings, aggression,
or heightened sexual awareness.
Estradiol (In Girls)

• Estradiol is the primary female sex hormone. It

triggers:Development of breasts.
• Growth and changes in the uterus.
• Increased skeletal development (growth spurt).
• Accumulation of body fat in certain areas.
▪ Psychological Effects: May result in mood changes,
emotional sensitivity, or self-awareness about body image.
● Primary sex characteristics : Organs directly related to reproduction which
enlarge and mature during adolescence ; Not obvious at first

● Secondary sex characteristics : Physiological signs of sexual maturation that

do not involve sexual organs.
○ Breast development
○ Growth of body hair
○ Voice deepens
○ Skin becomes coarser and oilier

Papalia et al, (2011)

● Adolescents are preoccupied with their bodies
○ Body image
○ Body dissatisfaction is more acute during puberty than late adolescence

● Gender differences
○ Girls tend to be less happy with their bodies and have more negative
body image than boys
○ Boys become more satisfied with their bodies as they move through
puberty

Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014

● Early and late maturation
○ Early-maturing boys perceived themselves more positively
and had more successful peer relationships than late-
maturing boys
○ Similar findings with girls, but not as strong
○ Early maturation may increase girls’ vulnerability to
problems
○ Smoking, drinking, depression, eating disorders, struggle
for independence, early dating and sexual experiences
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014
 Activity

Discuss the role of different stakeholders in helping adolescents

handle puberty….

★ Parents
★ School
★ Peer group
Adult development and Ageing :
Early adulthood

● Subtle physical changes happen through early adulthood

● Peak functioning of joints occurs in the twenties

● Peak of muscle tone and strength in late teens and

twenties

● Begins to decline in thirties

Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014

 Adult development and Ageing :
Middle adulthood

● Physical changes are gradual

● Genetic and lifestyle factors play a role in chronic disease
● Physical appearance
● Lose height and gain weight
● Noticeable signs of aging by forties or fifties
● Strength, joints, and bones
● Sarcopenia, age-related loss of lean muscle and strength
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014
● Cholesterol levels increase through the adult years

○ Increased risk of cardiovascular disease

● Blood pressure rises

○ Metabolic syndrome

○ Condition characterised by hypertension, obesity, and insulin resistance

○ Leads to the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease

● Lungs

○ Gradual change in the elasticity of lung tissue after age 55

Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014
● Sexuality
○ Climacteric- midlife transition characterised by a
gradual decline in fertility for both men and women.

● Menopause
○ Usually in the late forties and fifties
○ Menstrual period ceases
○ Dramatic decline in the production of estrogen

Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014

 Adult development and Ageing :
Late adulthood

● Physical appearance
● Midlife changes become more pronounced in late adulthood
● Face wrinkles and age spots
● Weight drops because of lost muscle mass
● Circulatory system
● Increased blood pressure, linked to heart attack, stroke, kidney
disease
● Drug treatment, healthy diet, exercise can reduce risk of
cardiovascular disease
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education, 2014
 Ageing

● Primary Ageing

● Secondary Ageing: Problems associated with old age have more to

do with lifestyle factors and diseases rather than due to ageing.

● Functional age is now used to determine the processes and extent

of ageing: It measures a person’s ability to function effectively in
his or her physical and social environment compared to others of
similar chronological age.
Papalia et al., (2011)
 Theories of Ageing :
No single theory explains all the complex processes
of ageing

1. Genetic Programming Theories / Cellular Clock Theory

Ageing is pre-programmed into our genes, like a biological timetable.

"Hayflick Limit": Cells can divide only a certain number of times (about
50), and then they stop dividing, which leads to ageing.

Genes might turn "off" as we age, affecting systems like the immune
system and hormones and leading to ageing-related changes .
 Theories of Ageing :
2. Variable Rate Theories

• Aging varies from person to person and depends on external (e.g.,

lifestyle, environment) and internal factors (e.g., metabolism, genetics).

▪ a) Free Radical Theory

• Free radicals (unstable oxygen molecules) are produced during

metabolism.

• These free radicals damage cells and DNA, leading to ageing.

Theories of Ageing :

b) Mitochondrial Theory
• The mitochondria (energy powerhouses of cells)
decay with age due to oxidative damage.
• This reduces energy production, leading to ageing and
cell damage.
c) Sirtuin Theory
• Sirtuins are proteins that help cells handle stress and
repair damage.
• Low levels of sirtuins reduce stress resistance and
shorten lifespan.
• This theory is still being studied and isn’t fully proven.
 Theories of Ageing :

d) mTOR Pathway Theory

• The mTOR pathway (a cell system that regulates growth and metabolism)
becomes less effective as we age.

• This can contribute to aging and reduced cellular function, but more research is
needed.

e) Hormonal Stress Theory

• As we age, the hormonal system changes, leading to increased stress,

reduced immunity, and higher chances of diseases like diabetes and heart
problems.
 Other Theories

Rate of Living Theory

• Faster metabolism (e.g., in animals with shorter lifespans) leads to quicker ageing.

Wear and Tear Theory

• The body wears out over time, like a machine, due to accumulated damage from
daily use.

Autoimmune Theory

• As we age, the immune system malfunctions and attacks healthy cells, causing
ageing and diseases.