EXPLORATION OF SEISMIC REFRACTION
GROUNDWATER METHOD
GROUNDWA
TER
Groundwater is the water found beneath the
Earth’s surface that has been recharged from
surface to the ground by means of infiltration
and percolation . It occupies the very small
cracks and spaces between rocks, gravel and
sand.
It is a common misconception that
groundwater is in the form of underground
lakes, streams and rivers, where in reality,
groundwater is found inside rocks: in the small
pore spaces between rock grains in
sedimentary rocks, between sand and gravel
particles in alluvial deposits, or in narrow
fractures and faults in crystalline rocks
AQUIFERS
A unit of rock or consolidated deposit which
act as water bearing permeable rock formation
or unconsolidated material in an underground
layer is called as aquifers. Geologic units
comprising an aquifer consist of either
unconsolidated sediments or consolidated rock,
with the porosity of the rock determining the
amount of water it can hold and permeability
determining its ability to transmit water.
The most common are unconsolidated sands
and gravels of alluvial, glacial, lacustrine, and
deltaic origin; sedimentary rocks, especially
limestone and dolomites and sandstones and
conglomerates and porous or fractured
volcanic rocks
WATER TABLE
EXPLORATION OF
GROUNDWATER
In most cases, ground water exploration
becomes a search of the types of
geological deposits or formations which
holds water of certain quantity. The most
common are unconsolidated sands and
gravels of alluvial, glacial, lacustrine and
deltaic origin sedimentary rocks,
especially limestone and dolomites and
sandstones and conglomerates and
porous or fractured volcanic rocks .
The methods of exploration can be
grouped under four categories namely
surface geological, subsurface geological,
surface geophysical and subsurface
geophysical methods.
SEISMIC
METHODS
SEISMIC
REFRACTION
METHOD
SEISMIC
REFLECTION
METHOD
SEISMIC Seismic waves are waves of energy that
travel through the Earth's layers and are a
WAVES result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
magma movement, large landslides and
large man-made explosions that give out
low-frequency acoustic energy. Many other
natural and anthropogenic sources create
low-amplitude waves commonly referred to
as ambient vibrations. Seismic wave fields
are recorded by
a seismometer, hydrophone(in water),
or accelerometer .
The propagation velocity of seismic
waves depends on density and elasticity of
the medium as well as the type of wave.
Velocity tends to increase with depth
through Earth's crust and mantle, but
drops sharply going from the mantle to
the outer core.
[Body waves ]
[surface waves ]
Direction of wave propagation
SEISMIC
REFRACTION
METHOD
The seismic refraction method is one of the
surface geophysical method used in exploration of
ground water of depth of 100 meters and it also
used in order to characterize the sub surface
geologic conditions and geologic structures. It works
on the basis of propagation of elastic waves inside
the earth .Seismic waves follow the same laws of
propagation as light rays and may be reflected or
refracted at any interface where a velocity changes
occurs. It involves the creation of a small shock at
the earth’s surface either by impact of a heavy
instrument or by a small explosive charge and
measuring the time required for the resulting sound
or shock wave to travel known distances.
Seismic refraction methods is used in groundwater studies it goes only about
100 meters deep, the travel time of seismic wave depends on the media through
which it passing The velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and least in
unconsolidated materials, whereas the seismic reflection method provide
information on geologic structure that present 1000 meters below the surface .
Certain seismic velocities for a variety of geologic materials can be employed to
identify the nature of alluvium or bedrock. In coarse alluvial materials seismic
velocity increases markedly from unsaturated to saturated zones .consequently
the depth to water table can be mapped, often to an accuracy of 10 percent,
where geologic conditions are relatively uniform. Changes in seismic velocities
are governed by changes in elastic properties of the formation The greater the
contrast of these properties , the more clearly the formations and boundaries
can be identified in sedimentary rocks , the texture and geologic history are
more important than the mineral composition . porosity tends to decrease wave
velocity but water content increases it .For consolidated formations with a
uniform distribution of small pores , such as a sandstone, velocity and porosity
can be related by ,
is the measured velocity, is the velocity in the liquid saturating the rock, is
the velocity of the solid rock matrix and is porosity of the rock .
TWO LAYER MEDIUM
For the horizontal two layer case, the depth to the water table can be computed from
the velocities and and the distance to the intersection on the graph.
is the distance from the shock point to the point at which the direct wave and the refracted
wave arrive simultaneously. and are velocities .
Alternatively, the depth to the lower layer H can be determined using time intercept method.
Ti is the intercept time determined by projecting the second line segment backward to the
time axis. ,
are velocities
TIME –
DISTANCE
GRAPH
DIPPING LAYERS [TWO
LAYER CASE ]
In case where the surface is horizontal and
the layers are dipping at an angle it is
employed to shoot in two directions. One
forward and the other reverse , so that one
shot is ‘dipping upwards’ and the other one is
‘dipping downwards’. The velocity V1 in the
first layer is readily obtained from the travel –
time plot whereas the velocity in the lower
bed indicated from the two segments of the
up dip and down dip will only be apparent
velocities .For dipping layers, layer velocities
appear different for each end .The dip and the
true velocity can be determined from the up
dip and down dip velocities.
Time [milliseconds]
THREE LAYER MEDIUM
For a three layered seismic
refraction case, with V1<V2 <V3, the Distance [meters]
thickness of the first layer is
computed using above equation and
the thickness of the second layer, is
computed using
is the second intercept time,is the
thickness of the second layer, , , are
velocities at different interfaces .
FIELD PROCEDURE:
Seismic refraction investigations had been simplified with the help of compact and efficient
instruments. A small charge of dynamite is placed in a hand augered hole about one meter deep then
the hole is back filled. seismometers also known as geophones , detectors , or pickups are spaced in
a line from the shock point 3 to 15 m apart. They receive the shockwave and convert the vibration
into electric impulses. An electric circuit connects the seismometers to an amplifier and a recording
oscillograph, which automatically records the instant of firing and the various first arrivals of the
shock waves. Depth determinations to 60 to 100m are typical with this equipment, although
satisfactory work to depths of 300m has been accomplished. For investigations of depths less than
about 20m, a sledgehammer blow on the ground surface can produce a recordable shock wave.
Interpretation of seismic refraction data assumes homogeneous layers bounded by interfacial planes.
when no distinct boundaries exist , but rather a gradual transition zone , a curve replaces the break in
slope on the time-distance graph. fortunately water tables approximate planes , so that many of the
problems imposed by irregular configurations of geologic structure are avoided . efficient application
of the method requires skill in proper interpretation in terms of rock materials , depths , and
irregularities. Other knowledge of subsurface conditions aids in proper analysis of field records. The
actual presence of groundwater is difficult to determine without supplemental information because
velocities overlap in saturated and unsaturated zones. Seismic velocities must increase within depth
in order to obtain satisfactory results; as a result a dense layer overlying an unconsolidated aquifer
can mask the presence of the aquifer.
FIELD SETUP
Seismograph
Geophone interval
distance between Geophone
geophones Spread cable
Total offset
distance between
first and last
geophone
Geophone Seismograph
Geophone interval
distance between
geophones Spread cable
Total offset
distance between
first and last
geophone
MODERN INSTRUMENTS USED FOR SEISMIC SURVEY
ES-3000
Laptop controller for
ES-3000 or Geode
Geode
StrataVisor NZ
(PC built-in)
SmartSeis ST
[PC built-in]
(
Merits and Demerits:
The refraction method when applied in applicable areas can rapidly and
economically eliminate areas unfavorable for test drilling .It is not readily
adapted to small areas minimum distances of a few hundred meters are
needed for seismic profiles in different directions. Local noise or vibrations
from sources such as highways, airports and construction sites interfere with
seismic work. The seismic method requires special equipment and trained
technicians for operation and interpretation because of that it has been
applied to only a relatively limited extent for ground water investigations. It is
commonly employed to map cross section of alluvial valleys so that variations
in thickness of unconfined aquifers can be determined. Lateral seismic
velocity variations in unsaturated sediments can represent lithology
differences that correlate with water well yields.
Applications:
The primary application of seismic refraction method is to
determine the depth to bedrock and bedrock structure. Due to
dependence of seismic velocity on the elasticity and density of the
material through which the energy is passing, seismic refraction
survey provides a measure of material strengths and can
consequently be used as an aid in assessing rock quality. The
technique has been successfully applied to mapping depth to base
of backfilled quarries, depth of landfills, Thickness of overburden
and groundwater table. Refraction surveys are widely used in
foundation studies on construction sites to derive estimates of
depth to rock head beneath a cover of superficial material.
