Figures of Speech (1)

Figures of speech are forms of expression that depart from nor

mal word or sentence order or from the common literal meanings o
f words, for the purpose of achieving a special effect.
In everyday speech and writing and in literature the chief functio
ns of figures of speech are probably to embellish, to emphasize or
to clarify. They are used to give tone or atmosphere to discourse, t
o provide vivid examples to stimulate thought by startling the reade
r or listener, to give life to inanimate objects, to amuse, or to ornam
ent.
Figures of speech exist in almost endless variety and many are
closely related or intricately overlap, hence no completely satisfact
ory system of classification has ever been devised. The following a
re some commonly used ones:
 Figures of Speech (2)
1. simile 16. Irony
17. Sarcasm
2. metaphor 18. Satire
3. personification 19. Ridicule
4. metonymy 20. Innuendo
5. Synecdoche 21. Parody
6. Antonomasia 22. Climax
7. euphemism
23. Anti-climax
8. Hyperbole
24. Alliteration
9. litotes
25. Assonance
10. Antithesis
11. Paradox 26. Onomatopoeia
12. Oxymoron 27. Transferred epithet
13. Epigram 28. Pun
14. Apostrophe 29. Parallelism
15. rhetorical question 30. Repetition
 Figures of Speech (3)
1. Simile ( 明喻 )
A figure that involves an expressed comparison, almost always intr
oduced by the word “like” or “as”. The two things compared must b
e dissimilar and the basis of resemblance is usually an abstract
quality. 用 like, as 或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之间相似之处的办法，叫明喻。 ( 本体 :
tenor; 喻体 : vehicle)
1) As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far
country.
2) The water lay gray and wrinkled like an elephant’s skin.
3) He bellowed like a bull seeking combat.
4) That man can’t be trusted. He’s as slippery as an eel.
 simile
More examples:
A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled.
Love and cough cannot be hid (hidden).
He had no more idea of money than a cow.
The pen is to a writer what the gun is to a fighter.
(A is to B what C is to D.)
What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul.
( What C is to D, A is to B.)

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (4)

2. Metaphor( 暗喻 )
The substitution of one thing for another, or the identification o
f two things from different ranges of thought. It is often loosely def
ined as “an implied comparison,” “a simile without ‘like’ or ‘as’”. M
etaphor is considered by many the most important and basic poet
ic figure and also the commonest and the most beautiful.
1) Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture.
2) All his former joy was drowned in the embarrassment and
confusion he was feeling at the moment.
3) Snow clothes the ground.
 Metaphor (2)
▲ A metaphor, to be effective, has to have three properties, viz.,
a) freshness and originality, b) aptness and c) consistency.
▲ A metaphor is apt and appropriate if the comparison implied
heightens effect or enhances the subject.
e.g. Her beautiful long hair was pitch-black. (×)
Her beautiful long hair was jet-black. ( )
The night was pitch-black. ( )
▲ Consistency in metaphors becomes relevant and important when
we are using two or more metaphors to illustrate the same
subject. The metaphors are consistent if they produce images
related to and supporting each other and are not mixed or
discordant.
 Metaphor (3)
e.g. The seeds of rebellion were kindled in secret. (×)
(Here the metaphors are not consistent. One metaphor compares t
he initial stirrings of rebellion to seeds; the other likens the birth an
d growth of these feelings to the kindling of flames. Now seeds can
not be kindled. The metaphors are mixed.)
The flames of rebellion were kindled in secret. (√)
▲ Mixed metaphors can produce very amusing and illogical imager
y, and are to be strictly avoided. More examples:
I skim over the book to taste the tone of it. (×)
(Tone cannot be tasted.)
At last he felt a ray of hope. (×)
(We normally see rays.)
 Metaphor (4)
Below is an example of how three sets of metaphors are blended
Skillfully together to illustrate the difficulty of editing academic writing:
And so, anticipating no literary treat, I plunged into the forest of words of my fi
rst manuscript. My weapons were a sturdy eraser and several batteries of sha
rpened pencils. My armor was a thesaurus. And if I should become lost, a nea
r-by public library was a landmark, and the Encyclopedia of Social Science on
its reference shelves was an ever-ready guide.
Instead of big trees, I found underbrush. Cutting through involved, lumbering
sentences was bad enough, but the real chore was removal of the burdocks
( 牛蒡 ) of excess verbiage which clung to the manuscript.
(S.T. Williamson: “How to Write Like a Social Scientist”)
(1st set: plunge-get lost-landmark- guide
2nd set: forest- trees- underbrush- lumber-burdocks
3rd set: weapons- batteries- armor- cutting through- removal )
Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (5)
3. Personification ( 拟人 )
A figure of speech that gives human form or feelings to animals, or
life and personal attributes to inanimate objects, or to ideas and ab
stractions.
There are three chief kinds of personifications:
1) That produced by the use of adjectives.
the blushing rose; the thirsty ground
2) That produced by the use of verbs.
the kettle sings; the waves danced
3) That produced by the use of nouns.
the smiles of spring; the whisper of leaves
 Personification (2)
More examples:
a) Youth is hot and bold,
Age is weak and cold,
Youth is wild, and Age is tame.
— William Shakespeare
b) The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face.
c) This time fate was smiling to him.
d) Dusk came stealthily.
e) The storm was raging and an angry sea was continuously tossing
their boat.
f) The wind whistled through the trees. Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (6)
4. Metonymy ( 换喻，转喻 )
▲ The substitution of the name of one thing for that of another with w
hich it is closely associated. For example:
1) The pen is mightier than the sword.
2) She sets a good table. (= She provides good food.)
3) He is too fond of the bottle.
4) Gray hairs should be respected.
5) I have never read Li Bai.
▲ Metonymy can be derived from various sources— from names of
persons, form animals, professions, locations or place names, etc.,
as illustrated below:
 Metonymy (2)
A. Names of persons
a) John Bull: England, or the English people
b) Uncle Sam: The United States of America
B. Animals
the bear: the former Soviet Union or the Soviet government
C. Parts of the body
a) heart: feelings or emotions
b) head, brain: wisdom, intelligence, reason
e.g. Her heart ruled her head.
Use your brains.
c) gray hair: old age
 Metonymy (3)
D. Professions
a) the bar: the legal profession
b) the press: newspapers; newspaper reporters
E. Locations of government, of business or industrial enterprises
a) Downing Street: the British government or cabinet
b) The White House: the President or Executive branch of the U.S.
government
c) the Pentagon: the U.S. military establishment
d) Wall Street: U.S. financial circles
e) Hollywood: American film-making industry
f) Foggy Bottom: U.S. State Department Fig.2
 Figures of Speech (7)
5. Synecdoche ( 提喻 )
A. the naming of a part to mean the whole. For xample,
1. We are short of hands. (“Hands” for men who do manual labor.)
2. a fleet of 50 sails (for “a fleet of 50 ships”)
B. the naming of the material for the thing made.
e.g. Have you any coppers? (= any money?)
C. the naming of the genus for the species.
e.g. He is a poor creature. (= a poor man.)
D. the naming of an individual for a class.
e.g. He is the Newton of this century.
Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (8)
6. Antonomasia ( 换称 ):
▲ The term for some common figurative uses of names
1) the use of an epithet or title in place of a name
his majesty for a king or the name of the king;
his honor for a judge or the name of the judge;
the Boss for the name of the employer
2) The use of a proper name instead of a common noun
a Judas for a traitor
He is our Gorky. Gorky for a famous writer
Cf. synecdoche. There is a certain degree of overlapping here.
Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (9)
7. Euphemism ( 委婉语 )
The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one t
hat may offend or suggest something unpleasant.
e.g. “true words” the “gilded words”
A. Death, Illness, Old Age, etc.
to die to pass away; one’s heart has stopped beating
old people senior citizens
old age getting on; past one’s prime; feeling one’s age;
second childhood
mad emotionally disturbed; soft in the head; simple-minded
fat people weight- watchers
(The motive for the euphemisms in this case seems to be to
avoid hurting people’s feelings.)
 Euphemism (2)
B. Toilet Habits, etc.
go to the toilet visit the necessary; answer nature’s call;
do one’s business; go to the bathroom
(The motive here, obviously, is to avoid using the true words which
are considered crude and indecent in polite conversation.)
C. Poverty and Unemployment
dismiss lay off
penniless hard up; in reduced circumstances
in debt in difficulties
the poor *the have-nots; the underpriviledged/ disadvantaged
slums *sub-standard housing
(the euphemisms used by the poor themselves are to “soften” hars
h reality, but the terms marked * often used by
 Euphemism (3)
government personnel seem more to cover up governmental inabili
ty to solve social and economic problems— “cosmetic” words, so t
o say.)
D. Menial jobs or professions of low social standing
hairdresser beautician; hair-stylist; hair-designer
undertaker mortician
manicurist a nail technician
mechanic automobile engineer
bootblack footwear maintenance engineer
garbage man sanitation engineer
(The motive here is plainly to “uplift” these professions by name, if n
ot by status. It reflects a sense of inferiority as well as a striving for
“better things”.)
 Euphemism (4)
E. Political and Military activities
invasion military action
aggression police action
refugee displaced person [D.P.]
retreat adjustment of the front; redeployment
concentration camps strategic hamlets
driving inhabitants away pacification
shelling or bombing of one’s own troops ( or allied troops)
accidental delivery or death or casualties caused by “friendly fire”
(The euphemisms here are used to cover up the true nature of ev
ents, deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo-technical
words.) Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (10)
8. Hyperbole( 夸张 )
▲ A conscious exaggeration for the sake of emphasis, not intended
to be understood literally.
1) The wave ran mountain high.
2) His speech brought the house down.
3) All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (11)
9. Litotes ( 曲言；含蓄渲染 ) < 与夸张相反 >
▲ A form of understatement ( 轻描淡写，降调陈述 ) which gains its particular
effect by phrasing in the negative what it wishes to say positively.
1) This is no small accomplishment.
2) The German fleet was not an unworthy opponent.
3) This is not at all unpleasant.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (12)
10. Antithesis ( 对照、对仗 )
▲The setting of contrasting phrases opposite each other for empha
sis. In true antithesis the opposition between the elements is manif
ested through parallel grammatical structure.
1) The quest for righteousness is Oriental, the quest for knowledge,
Occidental. (Sir William Osler)
2) Good breeding consists in concealing how much we think of
ourselves and how little we think of the other person.
(Mark Twain)
3) A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an enemy his crimes.
4) If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot
save the few who are rich.
 Antithesis (2)
5) Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of
belaboring those problems which divide us.
6) And so, my fellow Americans ask not what your country can
do for you; ask what you can do for your country.
7) United, there is little we cannot do in a host of co-operative
ventures. Divided, there is little we can do, for we dare not
meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder.
8) a world which will lament them a day and forget them forever
9) From them all Mark Twain gained a keen perception of the
human race, of the difference between what people claim to
be and what they really are.
Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (13)
11. Paradox ( 反论；似非而是的隽语 )
▲ a statement that appears to be logically contradictory and yet ma
y be true, the purpose of which is to provoke fresh thought.
1) One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.
2) My life closed twice before its close. (Emily Dickinson)
(meaning two truly eventful things occurred in her life before that l
ife ceased)
3) In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so po
orly largely because they teach grammar so well.
4) The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth)
Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (14)
12. Oxymoron ( 矛盾修饰法 )
▲ A compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining of two contrasti
ng, contradictory or incongruous terms.
1) bitter-sweet memories
2) orderly chaos
3) the wisest fool in Christendom
4) living deaths
5) freezing fires
6) glorious defeat
7) poor rich guys
8) tearful joy
 Oxymoron(2)
An understanding of oxymoron can help us to appre
ciate more fully the implied complexity of descriptions
and feelings. Like paradox, an Oxymoron initially surpr
ises one with its incongruity of terms, which really hide
s a certain truth, or a significent point.
As in paradox, the appreciation of an oxymoron co
mes from trying to find the hidden truth, the subtle sign
ificance in otherwise conflicting images or ideas.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (15)
13. Epigram( 警句 )
▲ A short, pithy statement in verse or prose, usually with a touch of
wit, often antithetical.
1) Necessity is the mother of invention.
2) Experience is the name everyone gives to his mistakes.
3) Conscience is the inner voice that warns us that someone may b
e looking. (H. L. Mencken)
4) The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth)
(the intended meaning is that the actions of a boy indicate what ki
nd of a man he is likely to become)
Note: There may be some overlapping of an epigram and a paradox.
Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (16)
14. Apostrophe ( 顿呼 )
▲ The turning away from the subject and the addressing of an abs
ent person or a personified object or abstraction. The shift is bo
th emotional and dignified, therefore most appropriate in seriou
s and stately contexts.
1) “You Heavens, give me that patience, patience I need!”
(Shakespeare, King Lear)
2) “Envy, be silent and attend!” (Pope)

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (17)
15. Rhetorical question ( 修辞疑问句；反问句 )
▲ A question neither requiring nor intended to produce a reply but a
sked for emphasis. The assumption is that only one answer is pos
sible.
1) Was I not at the scene of the crime? (Lesson 2, Book 1)
2) O Wind
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
(Shelley: Ode to the West Wind)
3) … but can you doubt what our policy will be? (Lesson 5, Book 1)
4) But, without even considering that threat, shouldn’t it startle us t
hat we have put these clouds in the evening sky which glisten with
a spectral light? (Lesson 3, Book 1) Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (18)
16. Irony ( 反语 )
▲ A figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite
of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opp
osite of their usual sense. For example:
1) Oh, how I love queuing up! (In fact, the speak hates it.)
2) This diligent student seldom reads more than an hour per month.
3) “Generally speaking,” said Miss Murdstone, “I don’t like boys.
How d’ye do, boy?”
Under these encouraging circumstances, I replied that I
was very well, and that I hoped she was the same, with such
indifferent grace that Miss Murdstone disposed of me in two
words,— “Wants manner!” (C. Dickens: David Copperfield)
 Irony (2)
(Here the word encouraging is used ironically, for the circumstances
were not encouraging at all— they were, in fact, discouraging, for
Miss Murdstone had said she didn’t like boys.)
4) We are lucky. It’s the other side on the thirteenth of December. Th
at makes us feel real good. (David Parks: G. I. Diary)
(The writer means exactly the opposite of what he says. 13 is an u
nlucky number to most Westerners, and therefore they are definitel
y not lucky. And since on that date (December 13) they will land “o
n the other side” of the Pacific, in Vietnam, to fight in the Vietnam
War, they don’t feel good at all. In fact, they are all quite frightened
at the prospect.)
Fig.2
 Figures of Speech (19)
17. Sarcasm ( 尖刻讽刺 )
▲ A cutting remark, a verbal sneer. Sarcasm pretends to disguise its
meaning, but does not intend to be misunderstood.
1) “Oh, you’re really a great friend, aren’t you?” (addressed to one
who won’t lend the speaker 5 Yuan)
2) He is very generous indeed. (referring to one who won’t
lend the speaker his dictionary)
3) Where’s y’ go for it, man— Jamaica?
(Hopkins’ s cutting remark to McNair, the custodian, for
not being quick enough with the rum. Jamaica is an isla
nd in the Caribbean, world famous for its rum.) Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (20)
18. Satire
▲ It generally refers to a piece of literary work— prose, poetry, or d
rama — and generally not to a single sentence. It uses ridicule to
expose and to judge behaviour or ideas that the satirist finds foolis
h, or wicked, or both; Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” is a piece of satir
e.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (21)
19. Ridicule ( 嘲笑 )
▲ instance of being made fun of
1) Bryan mopped his bald dome in silence.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (22)
20. Innuendo ( 暗讽 )
▲ A mild form of irony, hinting in a rather roundabout way at somet
hing disparaging or uncomplimentary to the person or subject
mentioned. (hinting or implying a thing without plainly saying it)
1) I do not consult physicians; for I hope to die without them.
(meaning they are more trouble than help)
2) During the last five years my cook has several times been sobe
r. (meaning that he is always drunk)
 Innuendo (2)
3) “The weatherman said it would be warm. He must take his rea
dings in a bathroom.” (David Parks: G. I. Diary)
(The author is hinting at the inaccuracy of the weatherman’s
weather report. The weather is cold, rather than warm.)

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (23)
21. Parody ( 滑稽模仿 )
▲ Using the words, thought, or style of an author, but by a slight
change adapting them to a new purpose or ridiculously inappr
opriate subject; the imitation or exaggeration of traits of style s
o as to make them appear ludicrous
1) Britannia rues the waves (Lesson 13)
(parodying a well- known line, “Britannia Rules the Waves”, of
the famous British navy song “Rule, Britannia”) (See note 1 of
Lesson 13)
2) … or will the game be played according to the usual industrial
rules: from each according to his ability, to each according to
his investment (paroding a Marxist saying: from each acc
ording to his ability, to each according to his need) Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (24)
22. Climax ( 层进；渐升 )
▲ arrangement of phrases or sentences in ascending order of impor
tance
1) Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some
few to be chewed and digested (Francis Bacon: Of Studies)
2) Empire offered a few man a source of profit, many men a sense
of mission and, to the anonymous everyman of Europe’s slums,
a sense of pride.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (25)
23. Anti-climax ( 突降；渐降 )
▲ The sudden appearance of an absurd or trivial idea following one
or more significant or elevated ideas. Anticlimax is usually comic in
effect. 突降是采用突然下降的手法使句意从严肃、深刻、重要等等的概念中急转到滑稽、平庸、琐细
等等的概念上从而造成一种语义上的大的反差而获得一种鲜明的、幽默的交际效果的辞格。
需有两项或两项以上结构使语义能急转而下。 For example:
1) The duties of a soldier are to protect his country and peel
potatoes.
2) Seldom has a city gained such world renown, and I am proud
and happy to welcome you to Hiroshima, a town known
throughout the world for its— oysters. (Lesson 2, Book 1)
 Anti-climax (2)
3) There is nothing more exhilarating to the nature-love than an ea
rly morning walk in the foot hill of the Himalayas. It lifts his spirit
above material concerns and inspires in him noble thoughts. It a
lso makes him hungry.
4) What shall I do?
I have lost my beau and lipstick too.
(A woman’s beau is her boyfriend or lover. [old-fashioned])

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (26)
24. Alliteration ( 头韵 )
▲ The use in a phrase or sentence of words beginning with the
same letter or sound. Alliteration should be used only when the
writer makes a strong emotional response to his subject.
1) We felt strong, smug, secure. (Bailey: The American Pageant)
2) The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed
free.
3) Down the drive dashed dashing Dan.
4) The sun sank slowly.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (27)
25. Assonance ( 半谐音 ; 押元音韵 )
▲ The use of the same, or related, vowel sounds in successive wo
rds.
1) a deep green stream
2) the rain in Spain falls on the plain (My Fair Lady)
3) I arise from dream of thee
In the first sweet sleep of night
(Shelley: The Indian Serenade)

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (28)
26. Onomatopoeia ( 拟声；象声 )
▲The use of words that, when pronounced, suggest their meaning, s
uch as “hiss” or “buzz”. In poetry it involves suiting sound to sense
and thereby creating verses that carry their meaning in their sound.

▲ This device makes use of imitation of sounds for effect. These sou
nds may be those made by a person, animal or thing, or associate
d with some action or movement.
▲ It is a device much used in poetry and prose to add vividness or vit
ality to description or narration.
▲ For example:
Moo, mew, bow-wow, hiss, roar and baa are respectively imitative
of the cries or calls of cows, cats, dogs, snakes, lions and sheep. I
n the same way, trains toot; doors bang; windows rattle; fire crackl
es; machines clang; and racing cars go vroom-vroom. Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (29)
27. Transferred epithet ( 转移形容词；转移修饰 )
▲ A figure of speech where an adjective or descriptive phrase is tra
nsferred from the noun it should rightly modify to another to which
it does not really belong. Generally, the adjective is transferred fr
om a person to a thing or idea.
1) a sleepless night
2) throwing a reassuring arm round my shoulder
(Lesson 10, Book 1)
3) The sailors swarmed into a laughing and cheering ring around
the two men.
4) a nice cup of tea
 Transferred epithet (2)
5) They talked to the foreigner in hesitant English.
6) The thief made a trembling confession of his wrongdoin
gs.
7) He closed his busy life at the age of 80.
8) I had no temptation to take a flying holiday to the South.
9) …but above all I love these long purposeless days in w
hich I shed all that I have ever been.

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (30)
28. Pun ( 双关 )
▲ A play on words based on similarity of sound and sharp difference
in meaning, for a witty or humorous effect. There are many words i
n English which look or sound alike, but have different senses, or c
onnotations. For example:
1) Seven days without water make one weak (= week).
2) If we don’t hang together, we shall assuredly hang separately.
(Lesson 16, Book 1)
3) Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.
(Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet)
4) One shop announced: Darwin Is Right — Inside.
(Lesson 10, Book 1)
 Pun (2)
5) Make your every hello a real good-buy.
(a telephone advertisement)
6) To England will I steal and there I’ll steal.
(Shakespeare: Henry V.)
7) Try your sweet corn. You’ll smile from ear to ear.
8) Why are lawyers all uneasy sleepers? Because they lie first on one
side, and then on the other, and remain wide awake all the time.
9) A professor tapped on his desk and shouted, “Gentlemen— order!”
The entire class yelled, “Beer!”
10) If the man be a bachelor, sir, I can; but if he be a married man,
he’s wife’s head, and I can never cut off a woman’s head.
(Shakespeare: Measure for Measure)
 Pun (3)
11) 空对着，山中高士晶莹雪；终不忘，世外仙妹寂寞林。
( 《》 )

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (31)
29. Parallelism ( 排比 )
▲ In parallel construction it is necessary to balance word for word
(noun with noun, verb with verb, adjective with adjective, etc.), phr
ase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence.
▲ Parallelism is regularly employed in the listing of facts, ideas, ev
ents, etc., and the parallel elements may range from a minimum of
two to any number required.
▲ Parallel constructions are also introduced by correlative conjunc
tions such as either… or, neither… nor, both… and, not only… but
also, whether… or, and rather… than.
e.g. You can go there on foot, by bus or by train.
It is important to know how to study and to learn how to plan
one’s time.
 Parallelism (2)
… and that government of the people, by the people, for the
people shall not perish from the earth.
(Abraham Lincoln: “Gettysburg Address”)

★ (See Parallel structures in Lesson 5, Book 1)

Fig. 2
 Figures of Speech (32)
30. Repetition ( 重复；反复 )
The repeated use of the same synonymous words, to add force,
clearness or balance to a sentence.
e.g. 1)There is nothing so bad or so good that you will not find
Englishman in the wrong. He does everything on principle. He
fights you on patriotic principles; he robs you on business
principles; he enslaves you on imperial principles.
(Bernard Shaw: The Man of Destiny)
2) We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler or any
of his gang.
3) From this nothing will turn us— nothing.

Fig. 2
Thank you!