METAL FORMING

OPEARTIONS AND
DESCRIPTION
MODULE 3A

BY
Assoc. Prof. Lt Cdr DR. Aqueel
Shah PN

05/03/25 10:45 AM 1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Metal forming definition and categorization
 Metal forming temperature
 Hot , warm and cold working definition and understanding
 Friction in metal forming operation
 Lubrication requirement and consideration in metal forming
operation
 BULK DEFORMATION process in detail
 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing
 REFERNCE – Groover chapter 18 and 19

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DEFINITION METAL FORMING
 Forming processes are those processes in which material is
plastically deformed to the desired shape and size. In production the
metal forming process is the continuation of continuous casting or
ingots process. Generally the shape of the material before forming
process are either in slab, billet or bloom

05/03/25 10:45 AM 3
Contd….

 Most metal forming process will consist of a die which is a block

metal or other hard material with desired shape to deform the blank
(billet, bloom, slab or sheet metal). The methodology and shape of
the die depends on the forming process. Forming processes are
categorized between

 Bulk Deformation Processes

 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing

Sheet Metal Working
 Bending
 Deep drawing
 Cutting
 Miscellaneous processes

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STRESSES IN METAL FORMING
 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion

 However, some forming processes

 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)

 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)

 Still others apply shear stresses

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN METAL FORMING
 Desirable material properties:
 Low yield strength

 High ductility

 These properties are affected by temperature:

 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work

temperature is raised

 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction

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TEMPERATURE IN METAL FORMING

 Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces

and power at elevated temperature

 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:

 Cold working

 Warm working

 Hot working

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DEFINITION OF HOT WORKING VS. COLD
WORKING

 HW is performed above the re-crystallization temp of the material

and CW is done below the re-crysllization temp of the material.

 Re-crystallization Temp- “The approximate minimum temp at which

complete re-crystallization of a cold worked metal occurs within a
specified time.”
 -Heat Treaters’s Guide, American Society for Metals

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 TEMPERATURE RANGE FOR HOT AND
COLD WORKING.

Process
T / Tm

Cold working <0.3

Warm working 0.3 to 0.5

Hot working >0.6

Metals can be plastically deformed (worked) at room, warm, or high

temperatures.
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COLD WORK
 Plastically deforming a material at room temp results in:

 Change in the shape of the grains

 Strain (or work) hardening

 An increase in dislocation density

 Many cold forming processes are important mass production

operations

 Minimum or no machining usually required

 These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

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 Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or
cold working, is the strenghthenining of a metal by
plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs
because of dislocation movements and dislocation
generation within the crystal structure of the material.
Most non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting
as well as several polymers can be strengthened in
this fashion. Alloys not amenable to heat treatment,
including low-carbon steel, are often work-hardened.
Some materials cannot be work-hardened at normal
ambient temperatures, such as Indium, however
others can only be strengthened via work hardening,
such as pure copper and aluminum

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 Work hardening may be desirable or undesirable depending
on the context. An example of undesirable work hardening is
during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently
work-harden the workpiece surface, causing damage to the
cutter during the later passes. Certain alloys are more prone
to this than others; superalloys such as Inconel require
machining strategies that take it into account.
An example of desirable work hardening is that which occurs
in metalworking processes that intentionally induce plastic
deformation to exact a shape change. These processes are
known as cold working or cold forming processes. They are
characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature
below its recrystallization temperature, usually at the ambient
temperature. Cold forming techniques are usually classified
into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing and
shearing. Applications include the heading of bolts and cap
screws and the finishing of cold rolled steel.
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GRAIN SHAPE CHANGE IN COLD WORKING
 Grains tend to deform to direction of deformation

Flow lines in
forged steel

deformation direction

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Before work hardening, the lattice of the material
exhibits a regular, nearly defect-free pattern
(almost no dislocations). The defect-free lattice
can be created or restored at any time by
annealing. As the material is work hardened it
becomes increasingly saturated with new
dislocations, and more dislocations are prevented
from nucleating (a resistance to dislocation-
formation develops). This resistance to
dislocation-formation manifests itself as a
resistance to plastic deformation; hence, the
observed strengthening.

05/03/25 10:45 AM 14
 A material generally deforms elastically if it is under the influence of
small forces, allowing the material to readily return to its original
shape when the deforming force is removed. This phenomenon is
called elastic deformation. This behavior in materials is described by
Hook’’s Law. Materials behave elastically until the deforming force
increases beyond the elastic limit, also known as the yield stress. At
this point, the material is rendered permanently deformed and fails
to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This
phenomenon is called plastic deformation. For example, if one
stretches a coil spring up to a certain point, it will return to its original
shape, but once it is stretched beyond the elastic limit, it will remain
deformed and won't return to its original state.
Elastic deformation stretches atomic bonds in the material away
from their equilibrium radius of separation of a bond, without
applying enough energy to break the inter-atomic bonds. Plastic
deformation, on the other hand, breaks inter-atomic bonds, and
involves the rearrangement of atoms in a solid material.

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 Increase of dislocations and
work hardening
Increase in the number of dislocations is a
quantification of work hardening. Plastic
deformation occurs as a consequence of work
being done on a material; enrgy is added to the
material. In addition, the energy is almost always
applied fast enough and in large enough magnitude
to not only move existing dislocations, but also to
produce a great number of new dislocations by
jarring or working the material sufficiently enough.
New dislocations are generated in proximity

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
COLD WORK

Advantages
 No heating required

 Better surface finish

 Superior dimensional control

 Better reproducibility and interchangeability

 Directional properties can be imparted into the metal

 Contamination problems are minimized

 increase in strength of the material.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
COLD WORK

Disadvantages
 Greater forces are required

 Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger

tooling are required

 Metal is less ductile

 Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free

 Intermediate anneals may be required to compensate for

loss of ductility that accompanies strain hardening

 The imparted directional properties may be detrimental

 Undesirable residual stress may be produced

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WARM WORKING
 Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature

 Dividing line between cold working and warm working often

expressed in terms of melting point:
 0.3T , where T = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal
m m

 ADVANTAGES
 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible

Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

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HOT WORKING
 Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature

 Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of melting point on

absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above

0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

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EFFECTS OF GRAIN SIZE ON PROPERTIES

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ADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING

 Workpart shape can be significantly altered

 Lower forces and power required

 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed

 No significant strengthening of part occurs from hot working

 Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently

processed by cold forming

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ADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING

 Porosity in metal is largely eliminated

 Impurities (inclusions) are broken up and distributed through the

metal

 Course grains are refined

 Due to grain refinement, the physical properties are generally

improved
 Ductility and resistance to impact are improved

 Strength is increased

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DISADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING
 High working temp. can result in rapid oxidation/scaling of surface =
poor surface finish

 Generally, close tolerances are hard to control

 Equipment and tool maintenance costs are high

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FRICTION IN METAL FORMING
 In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
 Metal flow is retarded

 Forces and power are increased

 Tooling wears faster

 Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working

05/03/25 10:45 AM 25
LUBRICATION IN METAL FORMING
 Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work interface in many
forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction

 Benefits:

 Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear

 Better surface finish

 Removes heat from the tooling

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CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING A
LUBRICANT
 Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)

 Hot working or cold working

 Work material

 Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals

 Ease of application

 Cost

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BULK TRANSFORMATION IN
DETAIL

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BULK DEFORMATION

 Metal forming operations which cause significant shape change by

deformation in metal parts whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet

 Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular billets and slabs, and
similar shapes

 These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently to cause plastic flow into
desired shape


Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Bulk Deformation Processes Produces common shapes

inexpensively PLUS Good mechanical properties

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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF BULK DEFORMATION
• Malleable material
• Push or pull • Refine and redirect the grain
• Single shot or continuous
• Alters geometry
• Hot or cold
• Alters material property

Reduction in size

v, F

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IMPORTANCE OF BULK DEFORMATION
 In hot working, significant shape change can be accomplished

 In cold working, strength can be increased during shape change

 Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape or net

shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent machining

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FOUR BASIC BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES

 Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls

 Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies

 Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking

the shape of the opening

 Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by

pulling it through a die opening

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 ROLLING
• It is a deformation process in which work thickness is reduced
by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

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FUNCTION OF ROLLS
 The rotating rolls perform two main functions:

 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between work part
and rolls

 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

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TYPES OF ROLLING OPERATIONS
 Based on workpiece geometry :
 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross

section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape

such as an I‑beam
 Thread rolling

 Ring rolling

 Roll piercing

 Based on work temperature :

 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of

deformation required and is above re-crystallization

temperature
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock and is

below re-crystallization temperature

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PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION FLAT ROLLING

D=draft
To=initial thickness
Tf = final thickness

 Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
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SHAPE ROLLING
 One of the primary first process to convert raw material into
finished product.

 Starting material (Ingots) are rolled into blooms, billets, or slabs

by feeding material through successive pairs of rolls.
 Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with a

thickness greater than 6” and a width no greater than 2x’s

the thickness
 Billets - square or circular cross section - - smaller than a

bloom
 Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater than 2x’s the

thickness), slabs are rolled into plate, sheet, and strips.

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PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION SLABS, BLOOMS
AND BILLETS

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SHAPE ROLLING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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 THREAD ROLLING
 Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts
by rolling them between two dies

 Most important commercial process for mass producing bolts and

screws

 Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines

 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

 Higher production rates

 Better material utilization

 Stronger threads due to work hardening

 Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses

introduced by rolling

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THREAD ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

Thread rolling with flat dies:

(1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

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 THREAD ROLLING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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RING ROLLING
 Deformation process in which a thick‑walled ring of smaller diameter
is rolled into a thin‑walled ring of larger diameter

 As thick‑walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates,

causing diameter of ring to be enlarged

 Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for
smaller rings

 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad
wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery

 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening

through cold working

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RING ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRRIPTION

• Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process

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RING ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

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ROLL PIERCING

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ROLL PIERCING PICTORIAL VIEW

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ROLL PIERCING PICTORIAL VIEW

 a set up of work piece

 b set up of die
 c piercing operation

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ROLLING MILLS TYPES/CONFIGURATIONS

 It is the place where rolling is performed

 Equipment is massive and expensive
 Reversible rolling is, sheet moves in both directions
 Irreversible rolling is, sheet moves in a single direction.

 Rolling mill configurations with respect to number of rolls:

 Two-high – two opposing large diameter rolls

 Three-high – work passes through both directions

 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls

 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls


Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
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 ROLING MILL CONFIGURATION-Two-High
Rolling Mill

Various configurations of rolling mills: 2‑high rolling mill.

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 ROLING MILL CONFIGURATION- Three high
rolling mill

Various configurations of rolling mills: 3‑high rolling mill

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OLING MILL CONFIGURATION- Four High Rolling Mi

Various Configurations Of Rolling Mills: Four‑high Rolling Mill

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ROLLING MILL TYPES - CLUSTER MILL

• Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Various configurations of rolling mills: cluster mill

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ROLLING MILLS TYPES- TANDEM ROLLING
MILL

• A series of rolling stands in sequence

Various configurations of rolling mills: tandem rolling mill

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ROLLING MILL CONFIGURATION SUMMARY

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PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION ROLLING MILL

• A rolling mill for hot

flat rolling; the steel
plate is seen as the
glowing strip
extending diagonally
from the lower left
corner (photo
courtesy of
Bethlehem Steel

Company)

05/03/25 10:45 AM 56
ROLLING DEFECTS
 Surface Defects-Rust, scratches, gouges, pits etc
 Usually caused by inclusions and impurities

in original material

Central cracks

 Cracks due to low material ductility

Edge cracks
 Alligatoring
 Usually caused by

non-uniform deformation
or impurities.
Alligatoring

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FORGING

 Deformation process in which work is compressed between two

dies

 Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000 B C

 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft

structural components, jet engine turbine parts

 In addition, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic

form of large components that are subsequently machined to final
shape and size

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CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING OPERATIONS
 Forging operation can be classified in number of ways. Lets
examine them briefly:
 Classification with respect to shape

 Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

 Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases

 Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional

flow
 Classification with respect to temperature:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase
ductility of work metal

 Cold forging - very less use in industry though advantage is

increased strength that results from strain hardening

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FORGING PROCESSES
 Classification with respect to impact
 Forging hammer
 Forging press

 Classification with respect to die

 Open die - work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal to
flow laterally without constraint

 Close die/impression die-die surfaces contain a cavity or impression that

is imparted to work part, thus constraining metal flow - flash is created

 Flashless die – work piece is constrained and no excessive flash is

created.

 Common forging processes include: open-die forging, impression-die

forging roll forging, swaging, cogging,, press forging, automatic hot forging
and upsetting

 Lets examine these processes in detail

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OPEN‑DIE FORGING
 Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging,
a hammer strikes and deforms the work piece, which is placed on a
stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that
the dies (the surfaces that are in contact with the work piece) do not
enclose the work piece, allowing it to flow except where contacted
by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient and position the
work piece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in
shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized
operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or
convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool

 Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of

work

 Common names include upsetting or upset forging

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OPEN DIE FORGING
 Simplest form of forging
 Dies have relatively simple shapes and usually performed on large
objects

Basic Shapes of Open Die Forging

Hot Open Forging

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 OPEN DIE FORGING – COGGING,
EDGING,FULLERING
 Cogging is successive deformation of a bar along its length using an

open-die drop forge. It is commonly used to work a piece of raw

material to the proper thickness. Once the proper thickness is
achieved the proper width is achieved via edging.

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CONTD…
 Fullering is a similar process that thins out sections of the forging
using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the work
pieces for further forging processes
 Edging is the process of concentrating material using a concave
shaped open die

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FULLERING, EDGING AND COGGING
OPERATION-PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

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OPEN DIE FORGING- FRICTION EFFECT
 Barrelling occur during forging due:
 Friction between die and work piece

 Use appropriate lubrication

 Cooling of area in contact with die

 Strength of material increases as temp decreases  less

deformation
 Use heated dies to stop or thermal barrier to prevent cooling

of work piece. .

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OPEN DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

Actual deformation of a cylindrical work part in open‑die forging, showing

pronounced barreling:
(1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape

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OPEN DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

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 OPEN DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

Hot Forging RAM

UPPER DIE

HOT SPECIMEN

LOWER DIE

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IMPRESSION‑DIE /CLOSED DIE FORGING

 Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In

impression-die work metal is placed in a die resembling a mold,
which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer die is shaped
as well. The hammer is then dropped on the work piece,
causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is
generally in contact with the work piece on the scale of
milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part
the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick succession.

 Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what

is referred to as flash.

 Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it aides in forging

processes by getting cool rapidly and restricting further
formation of flash , hence forcing metal inside die cavity to
achieve desire shape.

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CONSIDERATIONS - IMPRESSION‑DIE FORGING
PRACTICE
 Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for
each step

 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation

and desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps

 Final steps bring the part to its final geometry

 Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled

operator under adverse conditions under adverse conditions

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IMPRESSION/ CLOSED DIE FORGING
PICTORIAL VIEW

 Sequence in impression‑die forging:

• (1) just prior to initial contact with raw work piece,
• (2) partial compression, and
• (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap
between die plates

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IMPRESSION DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

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IMPRESSION/CLOSED DIE FORGING
PICTORIAL VIEW

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IMPRESSION‑DIE FORGING
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
 Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates

 Conservation of metal (less waste)

 Greater strength

 Favorable grain orientation in the metal

 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances

 Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features

needed, such as holes, threads, and mating surfaces that fit
with other components

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IMPRESSION DIE FORGING - FLASHLESS
FORGING
 One variation of impression-die forging is called flashless forging,
or true closed-die forging. In this type of forging the die cavities are
completely closed, which keeps the work piece from forming flash.
The major advantage to this process is that less metal is lost to
flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The
disadvantages of this process include additional cost due to a more
complex die design and the need for better lubrication and work
piece placement

 Starting work part volume must equal die cavity volume within very
close tolerance

 Process control more demanding than impression‑die forging

 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical

 Often classified as a precision forging Process/Near Net Shape

Process
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FLASHLESS FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

• Flashless forging sequence:

• (1) just before initial contact with workpiece,
• (2) partial compression, and
• (3) final punch and die closure

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COINING- SPECIAL APPLICATION
IMPRESSION DIE FORGING

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FORGING HAMMERS (DROP HAMMERS)

 Apply an impact load against work part - two types:

 Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a

heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or

steam

 Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor of

building

 Most commonly used for impression-die forging

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DROP FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units at the right of
the scene
(photo courtesy of Chambersburg Engineering Company)

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DROP FORGING FOR IMPRESSION DIE
FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for impression‑die forging

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FORGING DROP HAMMER PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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FORGING DROP HAMMER PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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POWER HAMMER PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

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PRESS FORGING
 Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or
force, which differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-
hammer forging. The amount of time the dies are in contact with the
work piece is measured in seconds (as compared to the
milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation
can be done either cold or hot

 Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including

open-die and impression-die forging. Impression-die press forging
usually requires less draft than drop forging and has better
dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings can often be done in one
closing of the dies, allowing for easy automation

 Forging presses types:

 Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion
of ram by means of eccentrics , cranks or knuckle joints
 Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram

Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram

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HYDRAULIC PRESS FORGING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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HYDRAULIC PRESS FORGING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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MECHANICAL PRESS FORGING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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ROLL FORGING
 Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced
in thickness and increased in length. Roll forging is performed
using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one
or more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls
and when it hits a stop the rolls rotate and the bar is
progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the machine. The work
piece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned
around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues
until the desired shape and size is achieved.

 The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a

favorable grain structure into the work piece.

 Examples of products produced using this method include axles,

tapered levers and leaf springs.

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ROLL FORGING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

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ROLL FORGING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

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HUBBING FORGING
 Deformation process in which hardened steel is forced into soft steel
block.
 Process is often use to make mold cavities for plastic molding and
die casting

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AUTOMATIC HOT FORGING
 The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars
(typically 7 m (23 ft) long) into one end of the machine at room temperature
and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs very
quickly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm)
and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or
hollow, round or symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in
diameter
 The main advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to
accept low cost materials. Little labor is required to operate the machinery.
There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30%
over conventional forging
 Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit
bearings, transmission gears, tapered roller bearing races, stainless
steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for LP gas cylinders. Manual
transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in
conjunction with cold working

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TRIMMING OPERATION
 Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in impression‑die
forging

 Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming press is

included at the forging station

 Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such as grinding

or sawing

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TRIMMING OPERATION PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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FORGING DEFECTS

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FORGING DEFECTS
 Incomplete die filling.
 Die misalignment.
 Forging laps.
 Incomplete forging penetration- should forge on the press.
 Micro structural differences resulting in pronounced property
variation.
 Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration in steel and nickel.
 Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring at high temperature
stick on the dies.
 Buckling, in upsetting forging-Subject to high compressive stress.
 Surface cracking, due to temperature differential between surface
and centre, or excessive working of the surface at too low
temperature.
 Micro cracking, due to residual stress.

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FORGING DEFECTS

 Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin Work

pieces. Therefore should increase the thickness of the flash.

 Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is
forced into the work piece.

 Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.

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FORGING PRODUCTS

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EXTRUSION

 Compression forming process in which the work metal is forced to

flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross‑sectional
shape

 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube

 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross-

sections

 Two basic types of extrusion:

 Direct extrusion

 Indirect extrusion

 Impact extrusion – high speed cold extrusion.

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DIRECT EXTRUSION

 Also called forward extrusion

 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains

that cannot be forced through die opening

 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extruded
product by cutting it just beyond the die exit

 Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape is

determined by die opening

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DIRECT EXTRUSION PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

DIRECT EXTRUSION

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(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi‑hollow cross‑section;
(b) hollow and (c) semi‑hollow cross‑ sections

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PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION DIRECT
EXTRUSION

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INDIRECT EXTRUSION
 Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of

hollow ram and difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits
die

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INDIRECT EXTRUSION PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

Indirect extrusion to produce

(a) a solid cross‑section and (b) a hollow cross‑section

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IMPACT EXTRUSION
 Impact Extrusion is commonly used to make collapsible tubes such
as toothpaste tubes, cans usually using soft materials such as
aluminum, lead, tin. Usually a small shot of solid material is placed
in the die and is impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow in the
material

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IMPACT EXTRUSION PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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ADVANTAGES OF EXTRUSION

 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion

 Limitation: part cross‑section must be uniform throughout length

 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm extrusion

 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion

 In some operations, little or no waste of material

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HOT VS. COLD EXTRUSION

 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its re-crystallization

temperature

 This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal,

permitting more size reductions and more complex shapes

 Steel is always extruded hot

 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts

 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold

extrusion

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EXTRUSION DEFECTS

 CENTER BURST – Internal crack that develop as a result of tensile

stress along the centre line of work piece.

 PIPING - sink hole in the end of billet associated with direct

extrusion

 SURFACE CRACK- cracks develop due high surface temperature

normally occurs when extrusion speed is slow.

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EXTRSUION DEFECTS PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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EXTRUSION PRESSES
 Either horizontal or vertical
 Horizontal more common

 Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven, which is especially

suited to semi‑continuous direct extrusion of long sections

 Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of individual parts

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WIRE AND BAR DRAWING

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WIRE AND BAR DRAWING

 Cross‑section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a

die opening

 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it

is pushed through in extrusion)

 Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a

significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die
opening

 Normal process involve

 Bar drawing
 Wire drawing
 Tube drawing

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WIRE AND BAR DRAWING GENERAL
PRINCIPLE DESCRIPTION

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BAR DRAWING

 Accomplished as a single‑draft operation ‑ the stock is pulled

through one die opening

 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder

 This necessitates a batch type operation

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BAR DRAWING BENCH

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars.

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WIRE DRAWING

 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies

(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums

 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock

through upstream die

 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is

achieved by the series

 Annealing (Heat Treatment Operation) sometimes required

between dies

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WIRE DRAWING PICTORIAL VIEW

Continuous drawing of wire

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WIRE DRAWING VS. BAR DRAWING
 Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock size

 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock

 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03

mm (0.001 in.) are possible

 Although the mechanics are the same, the methods, equipment,

and even terminology are different

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TUBE DRAWING

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TUBE DRAWING WITH NO MANDREL-TUBE
SINKING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

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TUBE DRAWING WITH MANDREL PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

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DRAWING PRACTICE AND PRODUCTS

 Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working

 Most frequently used for round cross‑sections

 Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and

shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs

 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes

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