Chapter 2

Pneumatic and Hydraulic

Systems

Fluid Power, Compressed Air, Hydraulic

Power Transmission
 Introduction to fluid power
Fluid power is the use of fluid to transmit power from one
location to another.
The power is transmitted through hydraulics and pneumatics
technologies.
In hydraulics, the fluid is a liquid (usually oil),
Pneumatics uses a gas (usually compressed air).
 Advantages of fluid power
 High horsepower-to-weight ratio
 Refers to generating high power with relative to weight (producing very high power without
being heavy).
 Safety in hazardous environments
 Inherently spark-free and can tolerate high temperatures.
 Force or torque can be held constant
 capacity of a system to maintain a constant force or torque output over time or throughout
a given range of motion, especially in the presence of fluctuating external conditions
 Pressurized fluids can be transmitted over long distances and through complex
machine configurations with only a small loss in power
 Multi-functional control
 A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power to many cylinders, motors, or
other actuators
 Elimination of complicated mechanical trains of gears, chains, belts, cams, and
linkages
 Motion can be almost instantly reversed
 High torque at low speed
 unlike electric motors, pneumatic and hydraulic motors can produce high torque
while operating at low rotational speeds. Some fluid power motors can even
maintain torque at zero speed without overheating
 Application of fluid power system
 Construction
 Mining
 Agriculture
 Waste Reduction
 Utility Equipment
 Marine
 Offshore
 Energy
 Industrial
 Aerospace
 Other Applications
 Pneumatics
 Mechanisms which use air pressure to apply mechanical force
and displacement.
 Pneumatic uses compressed air to generated power
 Pneumatics
 Forms of Outputs
 Linear motion
 Rotary motion
 Semi- rotary motion

 Application
Can be applied where operation cycles need certain routine functions such as
 Pushing
 Pulling
 Lifting
 Feeding
 Clamping
 Pressing
 Forming etc
 Pneumatics

Pneumatic adjustable table Pneumatic suction

Pneumatic brakes
 Properties of Compressed Air
• Availability
• Easily stored in large volumes
• Simplicity in design and control
• Provides linear and rotary movement
• Low system cost due to low component cost
• Components have long working life resulting in longer system
reliability
• Environmentally friendly
• Safety issues are minimized e.g.. Fire hazards; unaffected by
overloads (actuators stall or slip)
• Pneumatic actuators in a system do not produce heat (except
for friction)
 Compressed Air System Construction
 The device that produces, rotates, stores, regulates, and
disperses compressed air for a wide range of uses.
 The components and steps involved in constructing the
system are:
 Air compressors
 Air receiver (Storage tank)
 Air dryer
 Filters
 Pressure regulators
 Piping and distribution network
Compressed Air System Construction
 Compressor
• A compressor is a machine that compresses air or
another type of gas from low inlet pressure
(atmospheric) to a higher desired pressure level.
• Accomplished by reducing the volume of the gas.
Types of compressor
 Reciprocating compressor-Piston type

Figure shows single-acting piston actions in the cylinder of a
reciprocating compressor.

The piston is driven by a crank shaft via a connecting rod.

At the top of the cylinder are a suction valve and a discharge
valve.

A reciprocating compressor usually has two, three, four, or six
cylinders in it.

Air or
other gas
 Screw compressor

Screw compressors also belong to the positive displacement
compressor family.

In screw compressors, the compression is accomplished by the
enmeshing of two mating helically grooved rotors suitably
housed in a cylinder equipped with appropriated inlet and
discharge ports
 Rotary vane compressor

The rotor shaft is mounted eccentrically in a steel cylinder so
that the rotor nearly touches the cylinder wall on one side.


The vanes move back and forth radially in
the rotor slots as they follow the contour
of the cylinder wall when the rotor is
turning. To storage


The vanes are held firmly against the
cylinder wall by action of the centrifugal
force developed by the rotating rotor.
 Discussion Questions

1. What is the function of an air compressor in a

pneumatic system?
2. What is a pneumatic system, and how does it work?
3. What types of air compressors are used in pneumatic
systems?
4. Why are pneumatic systems widely used in industrial
automation?
5. What are the main factors to consider when
designing a pneumatic control system for
manufacturing?
 Hydraulics

 Hydraulics uses pressurized liquids to generate

control and transmit power.
 Basic principles
 Pascal’s law- Confined fluid under pressure
 Force and pressure
 Energy transmission
 Hydrostatic systems is also called simply
hydraulics
 Hydraulic power transmission
Hydrostatic power transmission:
• Positive displacement pump
• Creates high pressure and through a
transmission line and control elements
• This pressure drives an actuator (linear or
rotational)
 Advantages of Hydraulics
o Simple method to create linear movements
o Creation of large forces and torques, high energy density
o Continuously variable movement of the actuator
o Simple turnaround of the direction of the movement, starting
possible under full load from rest
o Low delay, small time constant because of low inertia
o Simple overload protection (no damage in case of overload)
o Simple monitoring of load by measuring pressure
o Arbitrary positioning of prime mover and actuator
o Large power density (relatively small mass for a given power
compared to electrical and mechanical drives)
o Robust (insensitive against environmental influences)
 Hydraulic Fluids - Tasks
Primary tasks:
o Power transmission (pressure and motion transmission)
o Signal transmission for control

Secondary tasks:
o Lubrication of rotating and translating components to avoid
friction and wear
o Heat transport, away from the location of heat generation,
usually into the reservoir
o Transport of particles to the filter
o Protection of surfaces from chemical attack, especially
corrosion
 Hydraulic Fluids - Requirements

 Functional
o Good lubrication characteristics
o Viscosity should not depend strongly on
temperature and pressure
o Good heat conductivity
o Low heat expansion coefficient
o Large elasticity modulus

 Economic
o Low price
o Slow aging and thermal and chemical stability 
long life cycle
 Hydraulic Fluids - Requirements (contd.)

 Safety
o High flash point or in certain cases not
inflammable at all
o Chemically neutral (not aggressive at all
against all materials it touches)
o Low air dissolving capability, not inclined to
foam formation

 Environmental friendliness
o No environmental harm
o No toxic effect
 Hydraulic Fluid Types
1. Water:
 Clear water or with additives
 Oldest fluid
 Used where there is danger of an explosion or fire or hygienic problem:
 Food and pharmaceutical industry, textile industry, mining

Advantages:
o No environmental pollution
o No disposal effort
o Cheap
o No fire or explosion danger
o Available everywhere
o 4 times larger heat conduction coefficient than mineral oils
o 2 times higher compression module than mineral oils
o Viscosity does not depend strongly on temperature
 Hydraulic Fluid Types (contd.)
Disadvantages:
o Bad lubrication characteristics
o Low viscosity (problem of sealing, but has good
sides: low energy losses)
o Corrosion danger
o Cavitation danger (relatively high vapour
pressure)
o Limited temperature interval of applicability
(freezing, evaporating)
 Hydraulic Fluid Types (contd.)
2. Mineral oil:
- Without additives
- With additives
o “Conventional” use, stationary hydraulics
o Always mixtures of different oils or with additives

Function of additives:
- decrease corrosion
- increase life duration
- improve temperature dependence of viscosity
- improve particle transport

Advantages:
o Good lubrication Disadvantages:
o High viscosity (good for sealing, o Inflammable
bad for losses) o Environmental pollution
o Cheap
 Hydraulic Fluid Types (contd.)
3. Not inflammable fluids:
- Contains water
- Does not contain water

o Mines, airplane production, casting, rolling, where there is

explosion and fire danger
o Water-oil emulsions (oil synthetic) or water-free synthetic
liquids

Disadvantages:
o Higher density, higher losses, more inclination to cavitation
o Limited operational temperature < 55 °C
o Worse lubrication characteristics, reduction of maximum load
o Worse de-aeration characteristics
o Sometimes chemically aggressive against sealing materials
 Hydraulic Fluid Types (contd.)
4. Biologically degradable fluids:
- Natural
- Synthetic

o Environmental protection, water protection

o Agricultural machines
o Mobile hydraulics

Characteristics similar to mineral oils but much more

expensive.
 Structure of a Hydraulic Drive System

Control
Prime Actuator
Movers Elements

Valves, manipulates
Pump, motor hydraulic variables, Elements doing work
Fluid reservoir pressure, and flow to • Linear
Pressure relief valve control mechanical • Rotational
Filter output variables • Swinging
Piping
A typical Hydraulic System

1 – pump
2 – oil tank
3 – check valve(non-return valve)
4 – pressure relief valve
5 – hydraulic cylinder
6 – directional control valve
7 – flow control valve
A typical Hydraulic System
Structure of hydraulic system
Power Transmission
 Types of Hydraulic Systems
 Two main categories:
– Open-center systems
– Closed-center systems

 The primary difference between open-center

and closed-center systems is:
 Open centre systems oil flows continuously
through the directional control valve regardless
of it being used or not.

 In closed centre systems oil flows only when

the valve sends signal to the pump, so this
system is not producing large
displacement of oil while not being used
 Types of Hydraulic Systems
Two main categories:
Open-center systems Closed center System
Open-center Systems
• In an open-center system, the
pump runs constantly and oil
circulates within the system
continuously.

• An open-center valve manages

flow through the circuit.

• When this valve is in its neutral

position, fluid returns to the
reservoir.
 Closed-center Systems
• In a closed-center system, the pump can be “rested”
during operation whenever flow is not required to operate
an actuator.

• The control valve deactivate the pump when it is in its

“closed” or neutral position.

• A closed-center system requires the use of either a

variable displacement pump or proportioning control
valves.

• Closed-center systems have many uses on agricultural and

industrial equipment, but on trucks, they would be used
on garbage packers and front bucket forks.
 Closed-Loop Hydraulic System (cont..)

Disadvantage:
Enclosed oil heats up, no cleaning of circulating oil.

Application: needed only when

(i) Two directions of rotation are wanted
(ii) Smooth change of direction is needed, which cannot be
done with a Direction Control Valve (Normally done by
varying eccentricity of the rotor in a vane pump)
 Hydraulic System Components
Reservoirs (storage tanks)
Accumulators
Pumps
Valves
Actuators (hydraulic motors and cylinders)
Conductors and connectors
Hydraulic fluids
 Reservoirs/Storage tanks
 A reservoir in a hydraulic system has the following roles:
– Stores hydraulic oil
– Helps keep oil clean and free of air
– Acts as a heat exchanger to help cool the oil

 A reservoir is typically equipped with:

• Filler cap
• Oil-level gauge or dipstick
• Outlet and return lines
• Baffle(s)
• Intake filter
• Oil filter
• Drain plug
 Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
 The design of hydraulic pumps and motors is
similar but they differ only in their function
Pump changes mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy.
Motor changes hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy.
 Hydraulic Pumps

Pump with fixed displacements

1 direction of flow 2 directions of flow

 Hydraulic Pumps (Cont.)

Pump with variable displacements

1 direction of flow 2 directions of flow

 Hydraulic Motors

Motor with fixed displacements

1 direction of flow 2 directions of flow

 Hydraulic Motors (Cont.)

Motor with variable displacements

1 direction of flow 2 directions of flow

 Types/Applications of Hydraulic Pumps

Gear Pumps
 Consists of two meshing spur gears
enclosed in a closely fitting housing.
 Rotation of gears from inlet or suction
port traps oil in the tooth spaces.
 As the teeth engage on the outlet side
the volume between the pair of teeth
decreases and the oil is forced out of the
delivery port
 As the teeth un-mesh again, the volume
increases and oil is drawn into the pump
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Advantages of Gear pumps
 Simple in construction
 Cheap in construction
 Robust and compact
 Small size but good delivery

Disadvantage
 Low efficiency
 Low pressure
 Noisy at high speeds
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Applications of Gear Pump
 Widespread in mechanical
engineering industries
 Jet engine fuel pump
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Screw Pumps
 Two or more screw spindles
are meshing in a housing.

 Housing, tooth flanks and

spindle body form chamber in
which the oil is transported
straight forward
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Advantages of Screw Pumps
 No pulsation (Constant flow)
 Flow straight with no trapped oil
 Self-priming capability
 Quite running

Disadvantages
 Only one direction of rotation is possible
 Manufacturing cost is high
 Limited to low to moderate pressure application.

Applications
 For sensitive machine tools (e.g. grinding machine, fine boring machine,
drives of elevators)
 Used as pumps as well as motors
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Vane Pumps
 The quantity and direction of delivery are
determined by he eccentricity of the rotor
carrying rectangular plates (vanes) rotates
eccentrically in a housing.

 As the rotor turns, the fluid is drawn in on

one side as the spaces formed between
the housing, vane and rotor increase and
are forced out on the other side as they
decrease.

 The fluid is led in and out of the pumping

chamber by the side passages or ports
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Advantages of Vane Pumps
 Variable delivery in 2 direction
 Self priming capability
 Smooth, low pulsation flow.
 Versatile fluid handling

Disadvantages
 Wear of vanes require fine filtered oil
 Lower efficiency at high speed.

Applications
 For high and medium pressure pump with variable delivery for
low speed motor
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Piston Pump
 Usually employ small pistons reciprocating at high
speeds
 There are many different types including the
common radial and axial pumps

Radial Piston Pumps

 The cylinders are fitted or bored radially
on the cylindrical block with a central
hole
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Axial Piston Pumps
 The piston moves axially in the cylinder barrel.
 All axial pumps employ a swash plate to reciprocate the
pistons.
 Piston reciprocation can be achieved by either
- Fixing the swash plate and rotating the cylinder block
- Rotating the swash plate and fixing the cylinder block
 Types and Applications (Cont.)
Advantages of Piston Pumps
 High efficiency.
 High pressure possible

Disadvantages
 Pulsation of flow
 Expensive

Applications
 For heavy drives
- Radial piston suitable for slow speed, high torque drive
- Axial piston gives best efficiency, widespread for machine tool
 Hydraulic Accumulators
 An accumulator is a reservoir in which oil is kept
under pressure.

 It serves as
- Pressure storage
- Fluid storage
- Energy storage

 Hydraulic accumulators is analogous to

electrical capacitor
Hydraulic Accumulators
 Hydraulic Accumulators (Cont.)
Common designs of accumulators
 Dead weight operated – A cylinder with plunger piston
(pressure maintained by weights on plunger pistons)

 Spring operated – A cylinder with a spring acting on the

piston

 Gas operated – Nitrogen under pre-charge pressure is filled

into a bottle through a gas valve and from the other side oil is
charged
 Non separator type – There is no separator between oil and gas
 Separator type – Oil resistant rubber acts as partition wall
 Piston type – A piston in the cylinder acts a partition wall
 Hydraulic Accumulators (Cont.)
Applications of Hydraulic Accumulators
 Pressure holding and leakage compensation e.g.
hydraulic clamping
 Storage for large intermittent flow allows choice of
smaller pump
 Emergency source of power if pump fails
 Acts as a pulse damper e.g. piston pump
 Reducing shocks e.g. fluid hammers
 Hydraulic Servo Mechanisms
 Servo mechanisms are self controlling systems in which a
mechanical position detected is always transmitted so as to
follow after a desired position.

 Consists of actuator like hydraulic motor/cylinder, servo

valve sensor and amplifier.

 Servo valve is a directional valve varrying output

flow/pressure in response to an input signal.

 Position of the spool/ piston controls an orifice from fully

opened to closed, changing flow/pressure from zero to
maximum
 Hydraulic Servo Mechanisms (Cont.)

 Basic elements of servo mechanisms

– Movement Initiator
– Amplifying system
– Actuator
– Feedback system

 Modern control system combine electrical and

fluid power actuator

 Led to development of electric torque motor to

actuate hydraulic servo valve
Operation of Electro-Hydraulic Servo Valve
 The increasing demands from modern control
systems necessitate greater flexibility between
controlling elements. This has resulted in the
combining of electrical signal with fluid power
actuators. The need to change from electrical to
hydraulic control led to the development of electric
torque motor to actuate the hydraulic servo valve.
 The input is the current to the solenoid and the
output is a strong hydraulic flow as shown in the
figure below.
 Electro-hydraulic Servo Valve (Cont.)

Current I

Hydraulic flow