Research Designs 1

Dr.Mgeni,T
IFM
0754615627
 Introduction 2

 The purpose of research is to discover answers to

questions through the application of scientific
procedures.

 Redman and Mory has explained research as

‘’systematized effort to gain new knowledge’
 The Research Process Cycle
3

Identifying a Reviewing the Specifying a Collecting Data Analyzing and Reporting and
Research Literature Purpose for • Selecting Interpreting Data Evaluating
Problem • Locating Research individuals to • Breaking down Research
resources • Identifying the study the data • Deciding on
• Specifying a • Selecting purpose • Obtaining • Representing audiences
problem resources statement permissions the data • Structuring the
• Justifying it • Summarizing • Narrowing the • Gathering • Explaining the report
• Suggesting the resources purpose information data • Writing the
need to study statement to report
it for research sensitively
audiences questions or
hypotheses
 OUTLINE

•Functions 4
•Essential elements
RESEARCH
•Key characteristics
DESIGN - Theory
•Steps in Research Design

•Grounded theory
•Ethnographies
RESEARCH DESIGNS– • Narrative research
Qualitative Approach • Case Study

•Experimental Research design

RESEARCH DESIGNS - •Action Research design
Quantitative Approach •Survey Research design
•Correlational Research design
 5

RESEARCH
DESIGN - Theory •General concepts
 What is research design?
6
 Overall plan or programme of research

 Research Design can be defined as a framework of research methods and techniques

applied by a researcher to incorporate different elements & components of research in a
systematic manner with a view to operate the Research Problem efficiently.

 Most significantly, research design provides insights about “How to Conduct a Research
using a particular research methodology.

 The main aim of Research Design - To find out answers to research questions.
 7
Key points need to split the
parts of the overall research
design

What type of data is required?

What is the study about?
Where can the required data be found?
Why is the study being made?
What periods of time will the study
Where will the study be carried out?
include?

What will be the sample design?

What techniques of data collection will be
used?
How will the data be analysed?
In what style will the report be prepared?
Functions of Research Design 8

1. The research design provides a blueprint to the researcher.

 For example- what the research is about?
 What kind of data requires to resolve research questions?
 Where to collect the required data and information? Study area, time, and so on.
Functions of Research Design 9

2.Research design determines an outline of research work that’s the researcher can

concentrate fully on the study.

 That is, the precise objectives of the study are the most important in this regard.
 The reason is pointless research becomes an endless practice so far.

3.The research design helps the researcher to resolve many shortcomings before the study

starts.
 This is possible through the proper Review of Literature.
 The researcher in this review can decide some possible alternative ways to solve the research
problem.
Essential elements of the research designs 10

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
 7. Timeline
How do we Create a Research Design? 11

Creating a research design means making DECISIONS about:

 Overall aims and approach
 The type of research design you’ll use
 How you’ll select participants or subjects
 Data collection methods
 The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
 Data analysis strategies
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF 12
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Steps in Research Design 13

Step 1: Consider - aims and approach

Step 2: Choose a type of research design
Step 3: Identify - population and sampling method
Step 4: Choose - data collection methods
Step 5: Plan - data collection procedures
Step 6: Decide on - data analysis strategies
Step 1: Consider your aims and 14
approach
 Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a
clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.
• Research ideas can come from a variety of sources, including
• Informal observations,
• Practical problems,
• Previous research.
• It is important to evaluate how interesting a research question is before
designing a study and collecting data to answer it.
• It is also important to evaluate how feasible a research question will be to
answer.
• Factors that affect feasibility include time, money, technical knowledge and
skill, and access to special equipment and research participants
 Exercises: 15
Practice: Generate five research ideas based on each of the following:

 Informal observations
 Practical problems
 Topics discussed in recent issues of professional journals.
 16
Step 2: Choose a type of research design

It broadly can categorize into the following three types.

1. Exploratory research is usually conducted when a researcher has just

begun an investigation and wishes to understand the topic generally.
2. Descriptive research aims to describe or define the topic at hand.
3. Explanatory research is aims to explain why particular phenomena work
in the way that they do..
 TYPES OF RESEARCH 17
DESIGNS
 Descriptive Research

As the name implies, this is an in-depth sort of research design that answers
what
 TYPES OF RESEARCH 18
DESIGNS

 Exploratory Research

This sort of research explores the subject matter and answers what and how.

( Feasibility study )

 Explanatory Research

This sort of research design explains the subject of the research and thereby
answers what, why, and how. (Causes and effect)
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
19

Evaluation research designs are classified into three broad categories, & several
subtypes.

1. Quantitative research design

2. Qualitative research design

3. Mixed method research design

Step 3: Identify your population and sampling method20
 21
Step 3: Identify your population and sampling method

Population vs Sample
Population Sample
Advertisements for IT jobs in the India The top 50 search results for advertisements for
IT jobs in the India on May 1, 2020

Songs from the K-POP Song Contest Winning songs from the K-POP Song Contest
that were performed in Korean (BTS -Group)

Undergraduate students in the Netherlands 300 undergraduate students from three Dutch
universities who volunteer for your psychology
research study

All countries of the world Countries with published data available on birth
rates since 2000
 Sampling Method
22

Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve
unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

The key benefit of probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that the sample chosen
is representative of the population.
This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be
aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases.
 23
Probability Sampling Method
The main types of probability sampling methods are
1. Simple random sampling,
2. Stratified sampling,
3. Cluster sampling,
4. Multistage sampling, and
5. Systematic random sampling.
Non-probability samples
 Voluntary samples
 Convenience samples
Step 4: Data collection methods 24

 Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and

gathering information
 ME T H O D A DVA NT A G ES D ISA D V A N T A G E S

Surveys • A n o n y m o u s c o m p le tio n • F o rc e d c h o ic e s m a y m iss

p o s s ib le
• Can administer to
c e r t a i n responses from
participants 25
groups ofpeople at the • W o r d in g m a y b ia s r e s p o n s e s
same time • Impersonal
• C a n b e e ff ic ie n t a n d c o s t
e f f e c tiv e
Intervie • Can build rapport • T im e c o n s u m in g
ws withparticipant • Expensive
( in d i v id u • Can prove to get
a l / in- • I n te r v ie w in g s ty le s a n d
additionalinformation w o r d i n g m a y affect responses
depth)
• Can get breadth or
depth ofinformation

F ocu s G rou ps • C an get com m on • N e e d e x p e r ie n c e d f a c ilita to r

i m p r e s s i o n s quickly • C a n b e d if f ic u lt a n d c o s tly to
• Can be an efficient way to s c h e d u l e a group of 6–8 people
get breadth and depth of • T im e c o n s u m in g to a n a ly z e
information in a short time resp o n ses
frame
Observation • C a n v ie w p r o g r a m • D if f ic u lt to in te r p r e t o b s e r v e d
o p e r a t i o n s a s they occur b e h a v io r s
• M a y in f lu e n c e b e h a v io r s o f
p r o g r a m participants
• M a y b e e x p e n s iv e a n d tim e
c o n s u m i n g to record each
individual event
Docume • Can document historical • M a y b e tim e c o n s u m in g
nt in f o r m a tio n a b o u t y o u r • A v a ila b le in f o r m a tio n
Review p ro g ram m a y b e incomplete
• Does not interrupt • Gathering information is
programroutine dependent onquality of records
• I n f o r m a tio n a lr e a d y e x is ts kept
 Other methods of data collection

26

Field Examples of data collection methods

Collecting a sample of texts (e.g. speeches, articles, or social

Media & communication media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives

Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-

Psychology based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional
response, or reaction time

Education Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills

Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight,

Physical sciences blood pressure, or chemical composition
Data Collection Plan 27

 1) Identify the questions that you want to answer

 2) Determine the kind of data that is available
 3) Determine how much data is needed
 4) Determine how to measure the data
 5) Decide who is going to collect the data
 6) Determine where the data will be collected from
 7) Decide whether to measure a sample or the whole
population
 8) Determine in what format the data will be displayed
28
Step 5: Plan - data collection procedures 29

 Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research,

where we need to precisely define the variables and ensure our measurements
are reliable and valid.
Reliability and validity
Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced.
Validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.
Step 5: Plan - data collection procedures 30

Reliability Validity

Does your measure capture the

same concept consistently over
time? Do your measurement materials
test all aspects of the concept?
Does it produce the same
results in different contexts? Does it correlate with different
measures of the same concept?
Do all questions measure the
exact same concept?
Step 5: Plan - data collection procedures 31

Operationalization
 Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

 When planning how you will collect data, you need to translate the conceptual definition of

what you want to study into the operational definition of what you will actually measure.

 Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with

more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence.

 If you’re using observations, which events or actions will you count?

 Example: To measure teachers’ satisfaction with online learning tools, you could create a

questionnaire with a 5-point rating scale.

Step 6: Decide on data analysis strategies 32

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question.

The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the
data.
 Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies 33

Quantitative data analysis

 The variability of the data (e.g. the standard deviation to describe how spread out
the scores are)
 The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your
variables.
 Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
 Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.
 Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more
variables, while comparison tests (such as t-tests and ANOVAs) look for
differences in the outcomes of different groups.
 Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research
design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of
your data.
 Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies 34

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, the data will usually be very dense with information and ideas.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are

1. Thematic analysis
2. Discourse analysis.
Thematic analysis-Example
35
Discourse analysis
36
37
Descriptive Analytics: What Is 38

Happening?
Diagnostic Analytics: Why Is It 39

Happening?
Predictive Analytics: What Is 40

Likely To Happen?
Prescriptive Analytics: What Do I Need To Do? 41
 42

RESEARCH DESIGNS - TYPES

Purpose of Qualitative approach and 43
Quantitative approach

Qualitative approach Quantitative approach

 Understand subjective  Measure variables and describe
experiences, beliefs, and concepts frequencies, averages, and
correlations
 Gain in-depth knowledge of a
specific context or culture  Test hypotheses about
relationships between variables
 Explore under-researched
problems and generate new ideas  Test the effectiveness of a new
treatment, program or product
 RESEARCH DESIGNS 44

Eight different research design :

Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Method

Experimental design Grounded theory Survey Research Design

Correlational Design Ethnographies Action Research Design

Narrative research

Case Study
 45

Research Designs- Qualitative

approach
 Qualitative Research Design 46

Qualitative Research Design having 4 subtypes:

1. Narrative research

2. Grounded theory

3. Ethnographies

4. Case study
 Qualitative Research Design 47

1.NARRATIVE RESEARCH

Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which

the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more

individuals to provide stories about their lives.

 Qualitative Research Design 48

3.Grounded theory

 Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants.

 This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of information

4. Ethnography

 Ethnography is a design of investigation coming from anthropology and sociology in

which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time.

 Data collection often involves observations and interviews.


 Qualitative Research Design 49

5.Case study

Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in
which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event,
activity, process, or one or more individuals.
 50

Research Designs- Quantitative

approach
RESEARCH 51
DESIGN – •Experimental
Quantitative Research Design
 52
1.Experimental design

 It seeks to determine if a specific treatment

influences an outcome.
 The researcher assesses this by providing a specific
treatment to one group and withholding it from
another and then determining how both groups
scored on an outcome. ( Control and Sample)
Experimental Designs 53

 Experimental researchers test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine

its effect on an outcome.

 Experimental research is usually undertaken when the goal of the research is

to trace cause-and-effect relationships between defined variables.
 54
Conclusion- Experimental Research Design

What do these studies tell you?

1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows
researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”

2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.

3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations.

4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

 55
Conclusion- Experimental Research Design

What do these studies don't tell you?

 The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
 The artificial settings of experiments may alter subject behaviors or responses.
 Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
 Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical reasons.
 Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimental designed research studies.
 56

RESEARCH
DESIGN – •Action Research Design
Quantitative
Action Research
57
Purpose of Action Research Design 58

 The purpose of action research is to improve the practice of education, with

researchers studying their own problems or issues in a school or
educational setting.

 Educators engage in reflection about these problems, collect and analyze

data, and implement changes or a plan of action based on their findings.

 In some cases, the research solves a local, practical problem, such as a

classroom issue for a teacher.

 In other situations, the research seeks ideological aims, such as to

empower, transform, and liberate individuals and communities.
Types of Action Research Design 59
Conclusion- Action Research 60

What do these studies tell you?

 1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in

work or community situations.

 2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than

testing theories.

 3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the
amount they learn consciously from their experience. The action research
cycle can also be regarded as a learning cycle.

 4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.

 5.There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

Conclusion- Action Research 61

What these studies don't tell you?

1.It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the

researcher takes on responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for
research.

2. Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t

use a standard format to report your findings effectively.

3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.

4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of

action (e.g. change) and research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming
and complex to conduct.
 Examples in Action Research 62

 When Do we Use Action Research?

 We use action research when we have a specific educational problem to solve.

 Action research provides an opportunity for educators to reflect on their own

practices.

 Within the scope of a school, action research offers a means for staff
development, for teachers’ development as professionals, and for addressing
schoolwide problems (Allen & Calhoun, 1998).

 In fact, the scope of action research provides a means for teachers or

educators in the schools to improve their practices of taking action and to do
so by participating in research
 63

RESEARCH
DESIGN – •Survey Research Design
Quantitative
Survey Research 64
 65
Survey Research

 It provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or

opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.

 It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or

structured interviews for data collection—with the intent of generalizing from

a sample to a population.
The main difference is that cross-sectional studies interview a fresh sample of people each
time they are carried out, (Summative results for two different academic years)
66
whereas longitudinal studies follow the same sample of people over time.( Formative results
with in a year)
Types of Survey Research 67
Design
 Conclusion- Survey Research Design
68

 What do these studies tell you?

 1.Cross-sectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics

associated with it, at a specific point in time.

 2.Unlike the experimental design where there is an active intervention by the researcher to
produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on
studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or
phenomena.

 3.Involves collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies
involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research
is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.

 4.Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the
sample rather than seeking random sampling.
 Conclusion- Survey Research Design
69

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar

except in one specific variable can be difficult.

2. Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a
sequence of events or reveal historical contexts.

3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.

4. Provide only a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that

a study could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.

5. There is no follow up to the findings.

 70

RESEARCH
DESIGN – •Correlational Research
Quantitative Design
 Correlational Research 71

 Correlational designs provide an opportunity for you to predict scores and explain the

relationship among variables.

 In correlational research designs, investigators use the correlation statistical test to

describe and measure the degree of association (or relationship) between two or more

variables or sets of scores.

In this design, the researchers do not attempt to control or manipulate the variables as in

an experiment; instead, they relate, using the correlation statistic, two or more scores for

each person .

 (e.g., a student motivation and a student achievement score for each individual).
Correlational Research 72
Correlational Research 73

What do these studies tell you?

 Identify whether you plan to examine the association between or among

variables or use correlational research to make predictions about an
outcome.

 Plot on a graph the association between your variables so that you can
determine the direction, form, and strength of the association.

 Use appropriate correlational statistics in your design based on whether

the data are continuous or categorical and whether the form of the data
is linear or nonlinear.
 Correlational Research 74

 Recognize that a correlation study is not as rigorous as an experiment

because the researcher can only control statistically for variables rather than
physically manipulate variables.

 Correlational studies do not “prove” relationships; rather, they indicate an

association between or among variables or sets of scores.

 Realize that all correlational studies, no matter how advanced the statistics,
use a correlation coefficient as their base for analysis.

 Understanding the intent of this coefficient helps you determine the results
in a correlational study.
 Examples of 75
Correlational Research

Maria chooses a quantitative correlational design for her graduate school research project.

This is her research question: “Is the use of alcohol by students related to suspensions for weapon
possession?”

In other words, does use of alcohol predict whether a person will receive suspension for possessing weapons
in the school?

Maria accesses school records for individuals cited for possession of alcohol and the records for weapon
possession.

She relates these two variables using the correlation statistic.

She finds that the two variables are positively related:

If a person has been cited for alcohol, he or she is likely to be suspended for weapon possession as well.

Maria conducts a correlation research study.

 • Experimental Designs :To trace cause-and-
effect relationships between defined variables.
76
• Action Research :To develop an action plan to
solve a specific practical/ educational problem

Grounded Theory
Ethnography design
Designs
To generate a RESEARCH DESIGNS-
SUMMARY Ethnography is a
theory because
design of
one is not
investigation
available or
coming from
suitable.-
anthropology and
• To describe trends, determine attitudes or sociology
opinions, describe characteristics of a
population, identify practices, evaluate
programs, or follow up on individuals over
time – Survey Design

• To relate two or more variables to see if they

influence each other- Correlational Research
 Thank you
Dr. Mgeni,T
Lecturer, Researcher and
Consultant
0754615627