IEB CHEMISTRY
B: CHEMICAL BONDING
Unit 1:
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
1.1 Chemical bonding
INTRAMOLECULAR
hat … BONDS
w t
Kno
Intramolecular bonds are
bonds occurring between
atoms within molecules.
iti on
efi n CHEMICAL BONDING
D Chemical bonding is the mutual attraction
between two atoms resulting from the
simultaneous attraction between their
nuclei and outer electrons. The energy of the
combined atoms is lower than that of the
individual atoms resulting in higher stability.
on:
fi niti ELECTRONEGATIVITY
D e
Electronegativity of an atom is
a measure of the tendency of an
atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons.
hat …
w t
Kno COVALENT BONDING
A covalent bond is a sharing of at
least one pair of electrons by two
atoms.
hat … NON-POLAR
w t
Kno COVALENT BOND
A non-polar covalent (pure covalent)
bond is an equal sharing of electrons,
due to zero difference in
electronegativity.
hat … POLAR
w t
Kno COVALENT BOND
A polar covalent bond is an unequal
sharing of electrons (due to a non-
zero electronegativity difference).
hat …
w t
Kno MOLECULE
A molecule is a group of
two or more atoms which
are covalently bonded and
function as a neutral unit.
hat …
w t
Kno IONIC BONDING
An ionic bond involves a transfer of
electrons to form cations and
anions which are electrostatically
attracted in an ionic crystal lattice.
t hat
ow METALLIC BONDING
Kn
Metallic bonding is the attraction
between positive kernels and a
sea of delocalized electrons.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
1.2.1 Covalent Bonding
The ΔEN is used to determine the type of covalent bond.
• ΔEN=0: non-polar or pure covalent bond.
• • 0<ΔEN<2,1: a polar covalent bond.
• ΔEN>=2,1: ionic bond
• The greater ΔEN the more polar the bond.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
• Polar covalent bond:
- One atom attracts the shared pair(s) of electrons more than the
other atom.
- One atom becomes slightly negative (δ-) and the other atom
slightly positive (δ+).
• Non-polar or pure covalent bond:
- The atoms will attract the shared pair(s) of electrons equally.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
Polar molecules:
• A polar molecule has an uneven distribution of electrons one
pole is δ+ and the other pole is δ-.
• This happens when the molecules are non-symmetrical.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
What determines whether a molecule is polar or non-polar?
• Electronegativity difference between the atoms
• Shape of the molecule
• Even distribution of charge non-polar molecule
(symmetrical molecules).
• Uneven distribution of charge polar molecule
(non-symmetrical molecules).
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
Polar and non-polar molecules:
A. Examples of molecules which consist of only two atoms.
1. Linear molecules consisting of identical atoms bond with a pure
covalent bond because of equal sharing of e-. Bond is non-polar
covalent, and molecules are symmetrical and
non-polar. Examples H2; N2; O2; F2
2. Linear molecules consisting of different atoms which bond
with
an unequal sharing of e-.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
A. Examples of molecules which consist of only two atoms.
δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
E.g. H Cℓ E.g. H F
• ΔEN =0,9 ≠ 0 • ΔEN =1,8 ≠ 0
• Bond is polar. • Bond more polar.
• Charge distribution is uneven. • Charge distribution is uneven.
• Molecule is polar. • Molecule is more polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
B. Examples of molecules consisting of three atoms.
1. Angular three-atom molecule, e.g. H2O
Electronegativity of O : 3,5
Electronegativity of H : 2,1
ΔEN : 1,4
• Bonds are polar.
• The molecule is polar.
Bond between H and O is polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
2. Linear three-atom molecule, e.g. CO2
Electronegativity of O : 3,5
Electronegativity of C : 2,5
ΔEN : 1,0
• Bonds are polar
• As the molecule is linear and symmetrical, the uneven load
distributions cancel each other out as they are in opposite
directions.
• The molecule is therefore non-polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
3. Linear three-atom molecule, e.g. CNCℓ
• ΔEN ≠ 0
• Bonds are polar
• As the molecule is linear and symmetrical, the uneven load
distributions cancel each other out as they are in opposite
directions.
• The molecule is therefore non-polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
C. Examples of molecules consisting of four atoms.
1. Trigonal planar molecule consisting of four atoms, e.g. BF3.
Electronegativity of F: 4,0
Electronegativity of B: 2,0
ΔEN: 2,0
• Bonds are polar.
• The molecule is non-polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
2. Trigonal pyramidal molecule consisting of four atoms, e.g. NH3.
Electronegativity of N : 3,0
Electronegativity of H : 2,1
ΔEN : 0,9
• Bonds are polar.
• The molecule is polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
D. Examples of molecules consisting of five atoms.
1. Tetrahedral molecules consisting of five atoms, e.g. CCℓ4.
Electronegativity of Cℓ : 3,0
Electronegativity of C : 2,5
ΔEN: 0,5
• Bonds are polar.
• The molecule is non-polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
2. Tetrahedral molecules consisting of five atoms, e.g. CH3Cℓ.
ΔEN for C–H bond: 2,5 - 2,1 = 0,4
ΔEN for C–Cℓ bond: 3,0 - 2,5 = 0,5
• Bonds are polar.
• The molecule is polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
3. Tetrahedral molecule consisting of five atoms, e.g. CI4
• ΔEN = 0
• Bonds are non-polar covalent,
molecule is symmetrical.
• The molecule is non-polar.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
Bond Type Molecular Shape Molecular Type
Water Polar
Methane Non-polar
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
Bond Type Molecular Shape Molecular Type
Carbon Non-Polar
Dioxide
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
1.2.2 Ionic bonding
• Metal bonds with non-metal
• Transfer of electrons
• Electrostatic attractive force keeps ions
together in strong crystal lattice.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding
1.2.3 Metallic bonding
Examples
Hydrogen chloride (HCℓ)
Electronegativity of Cℓ : 3,0
Electronegativity of H : 2,1
ΔEN : 0,9
Examples
Therefore, it is a polar covalent bond with uneven spread of
charge.
HCℓ molecule is polar.
• The chlorine atom is much bigger than the hydrogen atom
and exerts a greater pull on the shared pair of electrons.
Examples
• The chlorine side of the molecule is slightly negative (δ-)
and the hydrogen side is slightly positive (δ+). It can also
be shown with an arrow pointing in the direction of the
greatest pull (called a dipole moment).
Examples
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Electronegativity of O : 3,5
Electronegativity of C : 2,5
ΔEN : 1,0
Examples
Bond between O and C is polar.
• The molecule is linear and symmetrical.
• The individual bonds between oxygen and carbon are
polar, but as there are two such bonds directed opposite
to each other, the uneven electron and charge
distribution cause dipole moments to cancel each other
out.
Examples
• The molecule is non-polar.
• Oxygen atoms, which have the greater electronegativity,
pull the distribution of charge equally to each side,
thereby causing a non-polar molecule, even though the
bond between oxygen and carbon is a polar covalent
bond.
