UNIT-I

Power Quality
POWER QUALITY
Usually the term power quality
refers to maintaining a
sinusoidal waveform of bus
voltages at rated voltage and
frequency.

 The waveform of electric

power at generation stage is
purely sinusoidal and free from
any distortion.
However, there are many
devices that distort the
waveform.

 These distortions may

propagate all over the
electrical network.
Modern Utility System
 Modern Utility System

1. Deregulation of electricity
market

2. Customer demand

3. Distributed generations
• Wind Energy
• Solar Energy
• Co-generation plants
PQ Problems
Other linear loads, such as electrical motors
driving fans, water pumps, oil pumps, cranes,
elevators, etc., not supplied through power
conversion devices like variable frequency drives
or any other form or rectification/inversion of
current will incorporate magnetic core losses that
depend on iron and copper physical
 Classification of power quality
areas may be made according to
the source of the problem such
as,
Converters
Magnetic circuit non
linearity
Arc furnace or by the wave
shape of the signal such as
harmonics,
Flicker or by the frequency
spectrum (radio frequency
 The wave shape
phenomena associated with
power quality may be
characterized into
synchronous and non-
synchronous phenomena.

Synchronous phenomena
refer to those in synchronism
 CAUSES OF POWER QUALITY
DETERIORATION
1. Natural causes:

• Faults or lighting strikes on

transmission lines or
distribution feeders
• Falling of trees or branches
on distribution feeders
during stormy conditions,
equipment failure etc.
2. Due to load or transmission
line / feeder operation:

• Transformer energisation
• Capacitor or feeder switching
• Power electronic loads (UPS,
ASD, converters etc.)
• Arc furnaces and induction
heating systems
• Switching on or off of large
loads etc.
FOUR MAJOR REASONS FOR THE
INCREASED CONCERN:

1. Newer-generation load equipment

2. Increasing harmonic levels on
power systems
3. End users have an increased
awareness of power quality issues.
4. Many things are now
interconnected in a network.
Integrated processes mean that the
failure of any component has much
Increased concern about the
quality of electric power is the
continued push for increasing
productivity for all utility
customers.
Utility customers - always
want to increase productivity
Manufacturers - want
faster, more productive, more
efficient machinery
Utilities - encourage
this effort because it helps their
 POWER QUALITY DEFINITION
Whole of power engineering, in
one way or other is related to
power quality.

There is no universal
agreement for the definition of
power quality.
A Utility may define power
quality as reliability and show
statistics demonstrating that its
system is 99.98 percent reliable.
DEFINITION

A manufacturer of load
equipment may define power
quality as those
characteristics of the power
supply that enable the
equipment to work properly.
These characteristics can be
very different for different
criteria.
 Power quality is ultimately
a consumer-driven issue, we
define power quality as,

Any power problem

manifested in voltage,
current, or frequency
deviations that result in
failure or misoperation of
customer equipment.
Power Quality = Voltage
Quality

The power supply system can

only control the quality of the
voltage; it has no control over
the currents that particular
loads might draw.

Therefore, the standards in

the power quality area are
 Generators may provide a
near-perfect sine wave
voltage, the current passing
through the impedance of the
system can cause a variety of
disturbances to the voltage.
For example,

1. Current resulting from a short

circuit causes the voltage to
sag or disappear completely.
2. Currents from lightning strokes
passing through the power
system cause high-impulse
voltages that frequently flash
over insulation and lead to other
phenomena, such as short
circuits.

3. Distorted currents from

harmonic-producing loads also
distort the voltage as they pass
through the system impedance.
SOURCES OF POWER QUALITY
PROBLEMS
1. Load equipment and components
Converters, Pulse modulated loads,
Machine drives, Arc furnaces,
Computers, UPS, Television sets
Fluorescent and other gas
discharge lighting
Certain components which employ
magnetic circuits
2. Subsystems of the transmission and
distribution system
phenomena, the following
attributes can be used:
■ Amplitude
■ Frequency
■ Spectrum
■
Modulation
■ Source
impedance
■ Notch
depth
For non-steady-state
phenomena, other attributes may
be required:
■ Rate of rise
■ Amplitude
■ Duration
■ Spectrum
■ Frequency
■ Rate of occurrence
■ Energy potential
Transients can be classified
into two categories,

1.Impulsive

2.Oscillatory
Impulsive transient
 It is a sudden, non–power
frequency change in the steady-
state condition of voltage,
current, or both.

It is unidirectional in polarity

(primarily either positive or
negative).

Impulsive transients are

normally characterized by their
For example,

1.2 *50-μs 2000-volt (V)

impulsive transient nominally
rises from zero to its peak value
of 2000 V in 1.2μs and then
decays to half its peak value in
50μs .

The most common cause of

impulsive transients is lightning.
For example,

1.2 *50-μs 2000-volt (V)

impulsive transient nominally
rises from zero to its peak value
of 2000 V in 1.2μs and then
decays to half its peak value in
50μs .

The most common cause of

impulsive transients is lightning.
Oscillatory Transient

It is a sudden, non–power

frequency change in the steady-
state condition of voltage,
current, or both.

It includes both positive and

negative polarity values.

It consists of a voltage or

current whose instantaneous
It is described by its spectral
content (predominate
frequency), duration, and
magnitude.

The spectral content subclasses

defined in Table 2.2 are

High
Medium
Low frequency
HF: Primary Freq component >
500khz mesd in MicroSec duration
- Local sys response to Imp Tr

Med Freq: Primary Freq

component 5-500khz mesd in
MicroSec duration - Back-to-back
capacitor

energization
Low Freq: Primary Freq
component <5khz mesd in
Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration variations
encompass root-mean-square
(rms) deviations at power
frequencies for longer than 1
min.

It can be either overvoltages or

undervoltages.
Overvoltages and
undervoltages generally are not
the result of system faults, but
are caused by load variations on
the system and system switching
operations.

Long-duration variations are

typically displayed as plots of
rms voltage versus time.
OVERVOLTAGE
Increase in the rms ac voltage greater
than 110 percent at the power frequency
for a duration longer than 1 min.

CAUSES
1.load switching (e.g., switchingoff a
large load or energizing a capacitor
bank)
2. Incorrect tap settings on
transformers can also result in
system overvoltages.
EFFECT
The overvoltages result because either
UNDERVOLTAGE
Decrease in the rms ac voltage to less
than 90 percent at the power frequency
for a duration longer than 1 min.

Due to switching events that are the

opposite of the events that cause
overvoltages.
CAUSES

1.A load switching on or a capacitor

bank switching off can cause an under
voltage until voltage regulation
equipment on the system can bring
the voltage back to within tolerances.
2.Overloaded circuits can result in
SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION

When the supply voltage has been

zero for a period of time in excess of
1 min, the long-duration voltage
variation is considered a sustained
interruption.

This term has been defined to be

more specific regarding the absence
of voltage for long periods.
SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS

This category encompasses the IEC category of

voltage dips and short interruptions.

Each type of variation can be designated as,

1.Instantaneous,
2.Momentary,
3.Temporary, depending on its duration as defined in
Table 2.2.

CAUSES
1.Fault conditions
2.The energization of large loads which require
high starting currents
3.Intermittent loose connections in power wiring.
Depending on the fault location and the system
conditions, the fault can cause either temporary
voltage drops (sags), voltage rises (swells), or a
2.5.1 INTERRUPTION

An interruption occurs when the

supply voltage or load current
decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a
period of time not exceeding 1 min.

CAUSES

1.Power system faults

2.Equipment failures

3.Control malfunctions
2.5.1 INTERRUPTION

The interruptions are measured by

their duration since the voltage
magnitude is always less than 10
percent of nominal.

The duration of an interruption due

to a fault on the utility system is
determined by the operating time of
utility protective devices.

Instantaneous reclosing generally

will limit the interruption caused by a
nonpermanent fault to less than 30
Delayed reclosing of the protective
device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.

The duration of an interruption due

to equipment malfunctions or loose
connections can be irregular.

Figure shows such a momentary

interruption during which voltage on
one phase sags to about 20 percent
for about 3 cycles and then drops to
zero for about 1.8 s until the recloser
closes back in.
Delayed reclosing of the protective
device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.

The duration of an interruption due

to equipment malfunctions or loose
connections can be irregular.

Figure shows such a momentary

interruption during which voltage on
one phase sags to about 20 percent
for about 3 cycles and then drops to
zero for about 1.8 s until the recloser
closes back in.
Sags (dips)

A sag is a decrease to between 0.1

and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current
at the power frequency for durations
from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

Causes of Voltage sags

–Associated with system faults

–Energization of heavy loads
–Starting of large motors.
Figure shows typical voltage sag that
can be associated with a single- line-
to-ground (SLG) fault on another
feeder from the same substation.
•Figure illustrates the effect of a large
motor starting. An induction motor will
draw 6 to 10 times its full load current
during start-up.

•In this case, the voltage sags

immediately to 80 percent and then
gradually returns to normal in about 3
s.
• Note the difference in time frame
•Sag durations are subdivided here
into three categories such as,
•Instantaneous (0.5-30 Cycles)
•Momentary (30 Cycles-3sec)
•Temporary (3sec – 1 min)
Swells
•A swell is defined as an increase to
between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms
voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5
cycle to 1 min.
•Swells are characterized by their
Causes of Voltage Swell

-Associated with system faults

–Energization of large Capacitor
bank
–Switching off large load

–The severity of a voltage swell

during a fault condition is a
function of

•Fault location
•System impedance
Voltage Imbalance (voltage unbalance)

•Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as

the ratio of the negative or zero sequence
component to the positive sequence component.

•The negative or zero sequence voltages in a

power system generally result from unbalanced
loads causing negative or zero sequence currents
to flow.

Source

•Single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit

(<2%)
• Result of blown fuses in one phase of a three-
phase capacitor bank
Waveform Distortion
It is defined as a steady-state
deviation from an ideal sine wave of
power frequency principally
characterized by the spectral content
of the deviation.

5 types of waveform distortion

–DC offset
–Harmonics
–Inter harmonics
–Notching
DC offset
The presence of a dc voltage or
current in an ac power system is
termed dc offset.
HARMONICS
• Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages
or currents having frequencies that
are integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply
system is designed to operate.

•IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides

guidelines for harmonic current and
•Periodically distorted waveforms can
be decomposed into a sum of the
fundamental frequency and the
harmonics.

• Harmonic distortion originates in the

nonlinear characteristics of devices and
loads on the power system.

•Harmonic distortion levels are

described by the complete harmonic
spectrum with magnitudes and phase
•Total harmonic distortion (THD), as
a measure of the effective value of
harmonic distortion.

•THD - used to characterize both

current and voltage waves. However
THD refers distortion in voltage wave

•Figure illustrates the waveform and

harmonic spectrum for a typical
adjustable-speed-drive(ASD) input
current.
•Total Harmonic distortion (THD)
•IEEE 519 sets limits on total
harmonic distortion (THD) for the
utility side of the meter

•Utility is responsible for the voltage

distortion at the point of common
coupling (PCC) between the utility and
the end user.

•Total harmonic distortion is a way to

evaluate the voltage distortion effects
of injecting harmonic currents into the
utility’s system.
Total Harmonic distortion (THD) =
•(RMS of the harmonic content / RMS
value of the fundamental) * 100
•Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a
term used to describe the net
deviation of a nonlinear waveform
from ideal sine waveform
characteristics.
Example: Find the total harmonic
distortion of a voltage waveform with
the following harmonic frequency make
up:

Fundamental = V1 = 114 V
3rd harmonic = V3 = 4 V
5th harmonic = V5 = 2 V
7th harmonic = V7 = 1.5 V
9th harmonic = V9 = 1 V
Total Demand Distortion (TDD)
•IEEE 519 sets limits total demand
distortion (TDD) for the end-user side of
the meter.

•(RMS of the harmonic current / RMS

value of MD of Load Current ) * 100

•Expressed as a percent of rated load

current.

•TDD deals with evaluating the current

distortions caused by harmonic currents
INTERHARMONICS
Voltages or currents having
frequency components that are non-
integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
Sources of Interharmonic Waveform
Distortion
•Static frequency converters
•Cycloconverters
•Induction furnaces
•Arcing devices
NOTCH
Notching is a periodic voltage
disturbance caused by the normal
operation of power electronic devices
when current is commutated from
one phase to another
NOISE
Noise is defined as unwanted
electrical signals with broadband
spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power
system voltage or current in phase
conductors, or found on neutral
conductors or signal lines.
SOURCES
Power electronic devices, Control
circuits, Arcing equipment, Loads
with solid-state rectifiers, and
Switching power supplies.
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION(VOLTAGE
FLICKER)

• Voltage fluctuations are systematic

variations of the voltage envelope or a
series of random voltage changes, the
magnitude of which does not normally
exceed the voltage ranges specified by
ANSI C84.1 of 0.9 to 1.1 pu.
•SOURCE
•Loads that can exhibit continuous,
rapid variations in the load current
magnitude can cause voltage variations
that are often referred to as flicker.
Power Frequency Variations
Power frequency variations are
defined as the deviation of the power
system fundamental frequency from
it specified nominal value.
CBEMA Curve

•A set of curves representing the

withstanding capabilities of
computers in terms of the magnitude
and duration of the voltage
disturbance.

•Developed by the Computer

Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association (CBEMA)
•The axes represent magnitude and
duration of the event.

•Points below the envelope are

presumed to cause the load to drop
out due to lack of energy.

•Points above the envelope are

presumed to cause other
malfunctions such as insulation
failure, over voltage trip, and over
excitation.
CBEMA Curve is one of the most frequently employed power acceptability
curve. It was developed by the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers
Association in the 1970s, as a guideline for the organization's members in
designing their power supplies.
Basically, the CBEMA curve was originally derived to describe the tolerance of
mainframe computer business equipment to the magnitude and duration of
voltage variations on the power system. Also, the association designed the
curve to point out ways in which system reliability could be provided for
electronic equipment. Eventually, it became a standard design target for
sensitive equipment to be applied on the power system and a common
format for reporting power quality variation data.
The CBEMA curve was adapted from IEEE Standard 446 (Recommended
Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and
Commercial Applications - Orange Book), which is typically used in the
analysis of power quality monitoring results.
The CBEMA curve shows that voltage transients of certain
magnitudes, say about 200%, are acceptable for short periods of time
- 1 millisecond. Yet, that same transient with a duration of 1/2 cycle or
8.333 milliseconds would already cause malfunctions (i.e. disruption
of data).
The CBEMA curve illustrates that voltage levels below nominal are
acceptable, provided that they do not drop below the magnitude and
duration indicated by the curve. Thus, a decrease in nominal voltage
by 30% for 1/2 cycle would not cause disruption of data.
The CBEMA curve shows that voltage levels of even zero can be
tolerated for a very brief period of time - 4.167 milliseconds or 1/4
cycle. However, losing voltage for only a little more than 1/4 cycle for
a computer and/or other extremely sensitive equipment would
already cause unwanted disruption
ITI Curve
•A set of curves published by the
Information Technology Industry
Council (ITIC) representing the
withstand capabilities of computers
connected to 120-V power systems in
terms of the magnitude and duration
of the voltage disturbance.

• The ITI curve replaces the curves

originally developed by the ITI’s
predecessor organization CBEMA.
Need for PQ Standards

•PQ industry recognizes that PQ

standards are critical to the viability of the
industry.

•Stakeholders in the PQ industry

have developed several PQ standards in recent
years.

•Increased interest in power quality

has resulted in the need to develop
corresponding standards. of
increased application devices to
nonlinear energy efficiency,
improve the advent
•Increased use of sensitive electronic of
deregulation, and the increasingly
equipment,
icomplex
0n4/t06e/2r01c2onnected powUeNIand
rT.1
need for power quality standards. contribute to1t37he
PsOyWsEtReQUmALITaY ll
 Need for PQ Standards

• Standards set voltage and current limits that

sensitive electronic equipment can tolerate
from
• electrical disturbances.

• Utilities need standards that set limits on the

amount of voltage distortion their power
systems can tolerate from harmonics produced
by their customers with nonlinear loads.

• End users need standards that set limits not

only for electrical disturbances produced by
utilities but also for harmonics generated by
04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 101
other end users.
 Need for PQ Standards

• Deregulation increases the need for standards

so that the offending organization causing poor
quality problems is held accountable for fixing
the problems.

• Standards also allow utilities to provide

different levels of power quality service.

• Several national and international organizations

have developed power quality standards.
04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 102
 Power Quality Standards Organizations

Organizations responsible for developingpower

quality standards in the US include the following:

1. Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

3. National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST)

4. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

5. National
0 4 /06 /20 12
Electrical Manufacturers Associatio
( N E M A), UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY
n
140
 Power Quality Standards Organizations

6. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

7. Underwriters Laboratories (UL)

Outside the US, the primary organizations

responsible for developing international PQ
standards include the following:

• International Electrotechnical Commission

(IEC)

• Euronorms
• E04S/06K/20O12 M for 141

SouthUNIAT.1fPrOWicERaQnUAsLItTYandards
IEEE

• The IEEE founded in 1963 from

was two American Institute
the of
organizations:
Electrical Engineers (AIEE) and the
Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE).

•In 1991, IEEE formed

the Standards Coordinating
and oversee Committee (SSC-22)
the myriad of IEEE PQ to
coordinate under development or revision.
standards

•IEEE PQ standards deal primarily with the PQ

limits of disturbances at the PCC (the point
where the utility connects to its customer or
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 142
e n
04 /
IEEE

• IEEE power quality standards have a great impact

in the electrical utility industry but lack official
status, ANSI has the official responsibility to adopt
standards for the US.

ANSI

• 5 engineering societies and 3 government agencies

founded ANSI in 1918.

• It is a private, nonprofit organization with member

organizations from the private and public sectors.

• It does not develop standards, but

facilitates
standards development by qualified
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 143
groups,
04 /
I E
like the
ANSI

Consequently, officially authorize IEEE

many the dual ddesignation of
standards have
ANSI/IEEE.
It is the sole United States representative to the
two major international standards
organizations,

1.International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)

2.International Electrotechnica Commissio

(0I4/0E6/2C01)2. l n
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 107
ANSI

Consequently, officially authorize IEEE

many the dual ddesignation of
standards have
ANSI/IEEE.
It is the sole United States representative to the
two major international standards
organizations,

1.International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)

2.International Electrotechnica Commissio

(0I4/0E6/2C01)2. l n
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 108
IEC

•The genesis of the IEC occurred in 1890 at the

Electrical Exposition and Conference held in St.
Louis during a meeting of several famous
electrical pioneers.

•It has since evolved into an organization with

membership from 43 countries. The IEC Council
heads the IEC and 200
committees oversees technical and
, groups. subcommittees,
working
• IEC PQ standards working groups are concerned
mainly about standards that will 146
enhance
0 4/ 06 /20 1 2 U N
i n t e r n ational trad e .
IT.1

POWER QUALITY
IEC

They refer to power quality standards as so- called

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards.

IEC’s reference to PQ standards as EMC

standards illustrates that IEC’s primary concern
is the compatibility of end-user equipment with
the utility’s electrical supply system.

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 147

 Other domestic standards organizations

In US, other organizations, like EPRI, UL, NEMA, NFPA,

NIST, and some public utility commissions, have
also developed PQ standards.

EPRI- Developed reliability indices for utility

distribution systems and sponsored the System
Compatibility Research Project to enhance the
specifications of appliances and equipment to be
more compatible with their electrical environment.

Underwriters Laboratories is concerned about the

safety of various electrical appliances & developed
a standard for the safety of transient voltage
150
s04u/0r6/g20e12 suppressors, UUNITL.1

P 1OW4E4R9QU.ALITY
 Other domestic standards organizations
NEMA has set PQ standards for
motors,
generators, and (UPSs).

NFPA - Concerned about electrical standards for

fire safety. Consequently, developed PQ
standards to protect computer equipment
(NFPA-75) and building lighting (NFPA-780-95)
from electrical fires.

NIST - Developed an information poster on power

quality (NIST-SP768).

04/06/2012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 151

 Other International standards organizations

• IEC is the primary developer of

international power quality standards,
other organizations have developed
their own standards.

• ESKOM, the South African utility -

Developed PQ standards based on
the best of those in the US and the
rest of the world, plus new
requirements
p r e m ium that other organizations
04 /0 6/2 012 UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 152

cost. not developed yet.

have
 Other International standards organizations

The European Standards Community Standards

Organization (CENELEC) - Developed PQ
standards called Euronorms.

The International Union of Producers and

Distributors of Electrical Energy (UNIPEDE)
published, in 1995,“Measurement Guide for
Voltage Characteristics.”

The French standards organization,

Union Internationale d’Electrothermie (UIE), is
preparing a PQ guide on voltage dips, short-
duration interruptions, an
i0m4/06b/2a01l2a harmonics, d
nces. UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 153
 Other International standards organizations

• International standards tend to require more specific

measurements of power quality than United States
standards.

• International standards’ purpose is to ensure

electromagnetic compatibility between utilities and
their customers to help commerce and business, while
United States standards’ purpose is usually to solve a
power quality problem.
• US standards deal mostly with voltage quality, while
international standards deal with compatibility limits
between the electric utility power supply and the end-
user equipment.

• Thus, international standards require more

154
specificity
04 /0 6/ 201 2 UN I T. 1
t h a n U nited States s t a n
P O W E R Q UALITY
• Purpose of Power Quality Standards

• Purpose of power quality standards is to

protect utility and end user equipment from
failing or misoperating when the voltage,
current, or frequency deviates from normal.

• Power quality standards provide this protection

by setting measurable limits as to how far the
voltage, current, or frequency can deviate from
normal.

• By setting these limits, PQ standards help

utilities and their customers gain agreement as
to what are acceptable and unacceptable levels
UNIT.1 POWER QUALITY 155
o f
04 /

06/2 0 12
• Purpose of Power Quality Standards

To help the power quality industry compare the

results of power quality measurements from
different instruments, the IEEE developed IEEE
Standard 1159-1995 copyright © 1995,
Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric
Power Quality.

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