STAGE 4

DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

 What is Data Collection?

• Data collection is the systematic process of

gathering information for research purposes.
• It allows researchers to gain evidence, analyze
outcomes, and draw valid conclusions.
• Data can be collected through various
methods depending on the research design.
 I. OBSERVATION (NON-PARTICIPANT OR
PARTICIPANT)
• Explanation:
The researcher quietly observes how people behave
in environments where privacy might be affected—
like public spaces, social media, or workplaces—
without interfering.
• Example (Privacy Context):
Observing how often people read privacy policies
before using public Wi-Fi or mobile apps, without
directly asking them.
 II. INTERVIEW
• Explanation:
You conduct face-to-face, phone, or online interviews with
individuals to understand their thoughts, feelings, or
behaviors related to privacy.

• Example (Privacy Context):

Interviewing university students to ask how they feel about
surveillance cameras on campus or how they manage their
personal information online.
 III. QUESTIONNAIRE
• Explanation:
You prepare a set of questions (printed or online) to
gather opinions or experiences from many people
about privacy issues.
• Example (Privacy Context):
Distributing a survey with questions like:
"Do you read privacy policies before accepting
them?"
"Are you concerned about your data being shared
without permission?"
 IV. DOCUMENT/CONTENT ANALYSIS
(SECONDARY METHOD)
• Explanation:
You analyze existing documents such as company
privacy policies, government laws, or social media
terms of service.
• Example (Privacy Context):
Reviewing and comparing privacy policies of popular
social media apps to evaluate how they handle
users' personal data.
 6. ONLINE DATA OR REPORTS (SECONDARY
METHOD)
• Explanation:
Using data from published reports, legal cases, or
research studies already available.
• Example (Privacy Context):
Using a government report on data breaches to
understand common causes and how user privacy is
affected.
 DATA SOURCES
What Is a Data Source?
• A data source is any place or origin where
data is obtained from. It can be a person,
document, system, organization, database, or
even the environment—from which
information is collected for analysis or
research.
 PRIMARY DATA SOURCE
• Explanation
-Primary data sources refer to original, first-
hand information collected directly by the
researcher for a specific research purpose. This
data is new, fresh, and has not been used
before. It is collected directly from the source or
subject.
 SECONDARY DATA SOURCES
• Explanation
-Secondary data sources refer to information
that has already been collected, processed, and
made available by someone else, usually for a
different purpose. As a researcher, you use this
existing data to support or complement your
study.
 Interviews - Overview
• A method where questions are asked to gather
information directly.
• Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
formats are used.
 INTERVIEWS - TYPES
• Structured Interviews: These are highly organized interviews

where all participants are asked the same set of questions in

the same order.

• Semi-Structured Interviews: These involve a mix of
predetermined questions and open opportunities for the
interviewee to elaborate.

• Unstructured Interviews: These are flexible and informal.

The interviewer has a general idea of the topic but no fixed

questions.
 ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
• detailed answers
– you get in-depth responses and insights from participants.
• clarify when needed
– you can ask follow-up questions if something is unclear.
• Personal Interaction
– Interviews allow for face-to-face communication, making
it easier for participants to open up.
• Flexible
– You can adjust questions based on how the conversation
goes.
• Contextual Information
– You can hear the tone or see body language that gives
extra meaning to the answers.
 DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS

i. Takes Time
-Interviews are time-consuming because they require a lot of
time to conduct and analyze.
ii. Potential Bias
-The interviewer’s opinion or body language may influence
answers.
iii. Small Sample Size
-You can’t interview too many people, so the results may not
represent everyone.
iv. Expensive
-Interviews can be costly due to travel, trained interviewers, and
time.
v. Hard to Analyze
-Analyzing qualitative answers can be tricky and subjective.
 QUESTIONNAIRES - OVERVIEW

• A questionnaire is a research tool consisting of

a series of questions designed to gather
information from respondents.
• It can be administered on paper, online, or
through mobile apps.
 ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
i. Cost-Effective
– Cheap to produce and send, especially when done online.
ii. Quick to Distribute
– You can reach many people at once, even in different
locations.
iii. Standardized Responses
– All participants answer the same questions, which makes
the data easier to compare and analyze.
iv. Anonymity
– Respondents may feel more comfortable and honest when
answering anonymously.
v. Time-Saving for Researchers
– Once created, questionnaires can collect data without the
researcher being present.
 DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
i. Low Response Rate

– Many people ignore or do not return questionnaires.

ii. Misunderstood Questions

– No chance to explain questions if respondents don’t understand them.

iii. Limited Depth

– Answers are usually brief and may not give deep insights.

iv. Fixed Answers

– Multiple-choice questions limit what a person can say.

v. Lack of Honesty

– Some people may give false or socially desirable answers.

 Focus Group Discussions - Overview

• Method where group of people usually discuss

a specific topic led by a moderator.
• Useful for exploring perceptions and opinions.
ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

i. Rich Information
– People share ideas, opinions, and experiences, leading to
deep insights.
ii. Interaction Encourages Ideas
– One person's comment can spark new thoughts from others.
iii. Quick Data Collection
– You get information from many people at once.
iv. Clarification Possible
– The facilitator can explain or ask follow-up questions if
something is unclear.
v. Observing Group Dynamics
– Researchers can see how people react to each other, not
just what they say.
DISADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
i. Dominant Participants
– Some people may talk too much, while others say little or nothing.
ii. Not Always Honest
– Some may hide true opinions due to peer pressure or fear of
judgment.
iii. Hard to Manage
– Needs a skilled facilitator to guide the discussion and keep it on
topic.
iv. Difficult to Analyze
– Data is qualitative, so it’s harder to sort and compare than simple
surveys.
v. Small Group Size
– Usually involves a few people, so it may not represent the larger
population.
Participant Observation - Overview

• Researcher observes behavior in real time.

• Useful in ethnography and sociology.
• Advantages of Participant Observation
• Real-life Data
– You observe people in their natural environment, giving
more accurate information.
• Deep Understanding
– Helps researchers gain insight into behaviors, routines,
and culture.
• Flexible
– You can adjust what you observe based on what happens.
• Uncovers Hidden Behaviors
– People may act naturally, revealing things they wouldn't
say in interviews.
• Contextual Information
– Gives a full picture of the setting, not just the behavior.
 DISADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
• Time-Consuming
– It takes a long time to observe and gather enough data.
• Researcher Bias
– The researcher’s personal views may affect how they see
and record things.
• People May Act Differently
– If participants know they are being watched, they might
change their behavior.
• Ethical Issues
– It may be unethical if people are observed without their
permission.
• Difficult to Record Everything
– It can be hard to note all important details during the
observation.
 Surveys - Overview

• Methods of collecting information from a

sample of a people using questions.
• Can be via interview, phone ,online or papers.
 ADVANTAGES OF SURVEYS
• Collects Data from Many People
– You can reach a large number of participants quickly.
• Cost-Effective
– Especially cheap when done online or by email.
• Easy to Analyze
– Survey answers, especially multiple-choice, are easy to
sort and analyze.
• Standardized Questions
– Everyone answers the same questions, which makes
results more reliable.
• Quick to Conduct
– Surveys can be completed in a short time.
 DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEYS
i. Low Response Rate
– Many people may ignore the survey or not complete it.
ii. Limited Depth
– Surveys don’t allow for detailed or personal answers.
iii. Misinterpretation of Questions
– Participants may misunderstand some questions, with no one
there to explain.
iv. Not Always Honest
– Some people may lie or give socially acceptable answers.
v. Sampling Bias
– If not carefully selected, your sample may not represent the
whole population.
STAGE 5
 DATA PROCESSING
refers to the steps taken to collect, clean, organize, and prepare
raw data for analysis. It usually involves:
• Collection: Gathering raw data from various sources (e.g.,
surveys, databases, sensors).
• Cleaning: Removing errors, duplicates, or incomplete data.

• Organizing: Structuring data into a usable format (e.g., tables,

spreadsheets, or databases).
• Transforming: Converting data into the correct format or units
(e.g., changing text to numbers).
 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis involves examining, interpreting, and drawing
conclusions from the processed data. Common methods include:
•Descriptive Analysis: Summarizing data (e.g., averages,
percentages, graphs).
•Inferential Analysis: Making predictions or generalizations
(e.g., using statistical tests).
•Exploratory Analysis: Finding patterns, trends, or
relationships.
•Predictive Analysis: Using models to forecast future outcomes
(e.g., using machine learning).
 DATA INTERPRETATION
is the process of making sense of the results obtained after data
analysis — in other words, explaining what the data means in
relation to your research objectives.
It involves drawing conclusions, identifying patterns or trends,
and linking findings to your research questions or hypotheses.
 EMPIRICAL DATA
refers to information that is collected through observation,
experimentation, or real-world measurements not theory. In
your project, this could include:
Example:
Measuring the response time of a cloud system after applying
homomorphic encryption.
 ANALYSED DATA
is the result of processing and examining empirical data to
extract meaningful insights. It involves statistical methods,
charts, comparisons, etc.
Example:
After analyzing the collected data, you conclude that technique
A improves privacy but increases storage cost by 15%, while
technique B offers moderate privacy with no added cost.
How They Relate:
• Empirical data is the raw evidence gathered from
experiments, user tests, or real-world systems.
• Analysed data is the interpreted form of that evidence,
which helps in drawing conclusions about which privacy
techniques are most effective.
 CONCEPT OF ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

What is Ethical Consideration?

refers to the principles and moral guidelines that researchers
must follow to ensure their work is responsible, respectful, and
protects all involved parties — especially when dealing with
sensitive data, human participants, or technologies affecting
users' rights.
KEY ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN YOUR STUDY:
• Privacy Protection
– Ensure that any data you collect (e.g. user data, system
logs) is anonymized and kept confidential.
– Do not share any personal or sensitive information without
permission.
• Informed Consent
– If you're conducting surveys or testing with users,
participants must be informed about the study and
voluntarily agree to take part.
– They must know how their data will be used and stored.
• Data Security
– Secure storage of collected data (even test data) to prevent
unauthorized access or leaks.
– Use strong security practices when managing data in your
study.
• Avoiding Harm
– Ensure that your research does not cause harm to
individuals, organizations, or systems — for example, by
exposing vulnerabilities in public cloud systems
irresponsibly.
• Honesty and Integrity
– Report findings truthfully. Do not manipulate data to suit
your hypothesis.
– Acknowledge limitations and cite sources properly.
• Compliance with Laws and Standards
– Follow legal and institutional rules on data protection (e.g.
GDPR, Data Protection Acts, or university ethical
guidelines).
 KEY ETHICAL ISSUES
• Data Privacy and Confidentiality
– Ensuring that all personal or sensitive data is kept
secure and private.
– Avoiding unauthorized access or misuse of data
during experiments or system testing.
– Anonymizing user data to prevent identification.
• Informed Consent
– If users or participants are involved (e.g., in testing
or surveys), they must be informed clearly about:
• What the research is for
• What data will be collected
– Participation must be voluntary.
KEY ETHICAL ISSUES
• Data Security
– Ethical responsibility to protect stored data from
breaches, leaks, or tampering.
– Using secure methods to store and transfer data in
your research process.
• Transparency and Honesty
– Reporting results truthfully without altering or
fabricating data.
– Clearly stating any limitations or risks involved in
your study.
– Properly citing the work of others.
 KEY ETHICAL ISSUES
• Intellectual Property and Legal Compliance
– Respecting copyright and software licenses used in
your project.
– Following data protection laws like GDPR, Data
Protection Act, or local regulations.
• Bias and Fairness
– Ensuring that your study is not biased toward a
specific technology or vendor.
– Being fair and balanced in comparing different
privacy-preserving techniques.
BENEFITS OF CONSIDERING ETHICAL ISSUES
i. Protects People’s Privacy
– You make sure that personal or sensitive data is not misused
or exposed.
ii. Builds Trust
– Users and others can trust your system or research because
it shows respect for their rights.
iii. Follows the Law
– Helps you follow data protection laws like GDPR, so you
avoid legal problems.
iv. Makes Your Research Credible
– Ethical research is seen as more honest and professional.
 BENEFITS OF CONSIDERING ETHICAL ISSUES
v. Avoids Harm
– You prevent harm to people or systems, like data leaks or stress to
participants.
vi. Encourages Safe Innovation
– You create better and safer privacy solutions for cloud systems.
vii. Supports Approval and Acceptance
– Your project is more likely to be accepted by supervisors, ethics
boards, or published.
 VALIDITY
-means how well your research truly measures what it is supposed to
measure.
•If you want to test how well a technique protects data privacy, valid
results show whether it actually improves security not just how fast
it runs or how much storage it uses.
Example:
If your results show that “Technique A” prevents unauthorized
access better than others, and you tested that correctly, then your
study is valid.
Reliability
means how consistent and repeatable your results are.
In your case:
•If you test the same technique multiple times or in different settings,
and the results stay the same, your study is reliable.
Example: If you measure system response time after encryption and
get similar results every time, your method is reliable.