CHAPTER ONE
Database management system
DB course is about:
• How to organize data
• Supporting multiple users
• Efficient and effective data retrieval
• Secured and reliable storage of data
• Maintaining consistent data
• Making information useful for decision making
Introduction
• Database systems are designed to manage large data
set in an organization.
• The data management involves both definition and the
manipulation of the data which ranges from simple
representation of the data to considerations of
structures for the storage of information.
• Today, Databases are essential every business
• They are used to maintain internal records, to present
data to customers and clients on the World-Wide-Web,
and to support many other commercial processes.
Introduction
What is a database?
• Database is nothing more than a collection of shared
information that exists over a long period of time, often
many years.
• DBMS: A collection of programs that enables you to store,
modify, and extract information from a database.
• A database system (DBS) is a collection of interrelated data
and a set of programs to access those data.
• The collection of data, usually referred to as the database,
contains information relevant to an enterprise
• . The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store
and retrieve database information that is both convenient
and efficient.
Database System Applications
Databases are widely used. Here are some representative
applications:
• Banking:
• Airlines
• Universities:
• Credit card transactions
• Telecommunication
• Finance
• Sales
• Manufacturing
• Human resources:.
• Data management passes through the different
levels of development along with the
development in technology and services.
• These levels could best be described by
categorizing the levels into three levels of
development.
1. Manual Approach
2. Traditional File Based Approach
3. Database Approach
1. Manual Approach: The data storage and
retrieval will be performed using human labor.
•Limitations of the Manual approach
Prone to error
Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
You have the data but it is difficult to compile
the information
Limited to small size information
Cross referencing is difficult
2. Traditional File Based Approach
After the introduction of Computer for data processing to the business community,
the need to use the device for data storage and processing increase
• File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing
system.
• This approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.
• A collection of application programs perform services for the end-users. In such
systems, every application program that provides service to end users define
and manage its own data
• Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in
the organization.
• Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is
subjected to serious data duplication problem.
• File, in traditional file based approach, is a collection of records which contains
logically related data.
Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach
• Separation or Isolation of Data: Available information in one
application may not be known.
• Limited data sharing
• Lengthy development and maintenance time
• Duplication or redundancy of data
• Data dependency on the application
• Incompatible file formats between different applications
and programs creating inconsistency.
• Fixed query processing which is defined during application
development
• The most significant problem experienced by the traditional
file based approach of data handling is the “update
anomalies”.
1. Modification Anomalies: a problem experienced when one
ore more data value is modified on one application program but
not on others containing the same data set.
2. Deletion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one
record set is deleted from one application but remain untouched
in other application programs.
3. Insertion Anomalies: a problem experienced when ever there
is new data item to be recorded, and the recording is not made
in all the applications.
3. Database Approach
• Database is just a computerized record keeping
system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
• Database is a repository for collection of
computerized data files.
• Database is a shared collection of logically
related data designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. Since it is a shared
corporate resource, the database is integrated
with minimum amount of or no duplication.
• Database is a collection of logically related data where these logically related
data comprises entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an
organization's information.
• Since a database contains information about the data (metadata), it is called
a self descriptive collection on integrated records.
• The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to
retrieve and update that information on demand.
• Database is deigned once and used simultaneously by many users.
• Each database application will perform the combination of: Creating
database, Reading, Updating and Deleting data
Benefits of the database approach
• Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same
data instead of storing data in redundant manner for each user.
• Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query
languages, the users can easily access data without programming
experience.
• Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in database
to decrease the redundant data stored at different applications.
• Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data redundancy will
avoid inconsistency of the data in the database to some extent.
• Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any
transaction support systems are implanted in a full scale DBMS.
• Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications
will be integrated together with additional constraints to
facilitate shared data resource.
• Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be
secured by having different levels of clearance and other
data security mechanisms.
• Improved decision support: the database will provide
information useful for decision making.
• Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity
constraints in the database approach will maintain the
quality leading to better decision making
Limitations and risk of Database Approach
• Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
• Complexity in designing and managing data
• To cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
• High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
• Complex backup and recover services from the users perspective
• Reduced performance due to centralization and data
independency
• High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central
system.
Database Management System (DBMS)
• A DBMS also provides a systematic method for
creating, updating, storing, retrieving data in a
database. DBMS also provides the service of
controlling data access, enforcing data
integrity, managing concurrency control, and
recovery.
A full scale DBMS should at least have the following services to provide to the user.
Data storage, retrieval and update in the database
Transaction support service: ALL or NONE transaction, which minimize data inconsistency.
Concurrency Control Services: access and update on the database by different users
simultaneously should be implemented correctly.
Recovery Services: a mechanism for recovering the database after a failure must be
available.
Authorization Services (Security): must support the implementation of access and
authorization service to database administrator and users.
Support for Data Communication: should provide the facility to integrate with data
transfer software or data communication managers.
Integrity Services: rules about data and the change that took place on the data,
correctness and consistency of stored data, and quality of data based on business
constraints.
Services to promote data independency between the data and the application
Utility services: sets of utility service facilities
• DBMS and Components of DBMS Environment
• A DBMS is software package used to design, manage,
and maintain databases.
• The DBMS is software package that helps to design,
manage, and use data using the database approach.
• Each DBMS should have facilities to define the database,
manipulate the content of the database and control the
database.
• These facilities will help the designer, the user as well
as the database administrator to discharge their
responsibility in designing, using and managing the
database. It provides the following facilities:
It provides the following facilities:
Data Definition Language (DDL):
• Language used to define each data element required by the organization.
• Commands for setting up schema or the intension of database
• These commands are used to setup a database, create, delete and alter table with the facility
of handling constraints
Data Manipulation Language (DML):
• Is a core command used by end-users and programmers to store, retrieve, and access the
data in the database e.g. SQL
• Since the required data or Query by the user will be extracted using this type of language, it
is also called "Query Language"
Data Dictionary:
• Due to the fact that a database is a self describing system, this tool, Data Dictionary, is used
to store and organize information about the data stored in the database.
Data Control Language:
• Database is a shared resource that demands control of data access and usage. The database
administrator should have the facility to control the overall operation of the system.
• Data Control Languages are commands that will help the Database Administrator to control
the database.
• The DBMS environment has five components.
• To design and use a database, there will be the
interaction or integration of Hardware, Software,
Data, Procedure and People.
Hardware:
Software:
Data:.
Procedure:
People:
Database Development Life Cycle
As it is one component in most information system development
tasks, there are several steps in designing a database system.
Here more emphasis is given to the design phases of the system
development life cycle. The major steps in database design are;
1. Planning: that is identifying information gap in an organization
and propose a database solution to solve the problem.
2. Analysis: that concentrates more on fact finding about the
problem or the opportunity. Feasibility analysis, requirement
determination and structuring, and selection of best design
method are also performed at this phase.
• Design: in database designing more emphasis is given to this phase. The
phase is further divided into three sub-phases.
a. Conceptual Design: concise description of the data, data type, relationship
between data and constraints on the data.
• There is no implementation or physical detail consideration.
• Used to elicit and structure all information requirements
b. Logical Design: a higher level conceptual abstraction with selected specific
data model to implement the data structure.
• It is particular DBMS independent and with no other physical
considerations.
c. Physical Design: physical implementation of the upper level design of the
database with respect to internal storage and file structure of the database for
the selected DBMS.
• To develop all technology and organizational specification.
4. Implementation: the testing and deployment of
the designed database for use.
5. Operation and Support: administering and
maintaining the operation of the database system and
providing support to users.
• Roles in Database Design and Use
• As people are one of the components in DBMS
environment, there are group of roles played by
different stakeholders of the designing and
operation of a database system.
1. DataBase Administrator (DBA)
• Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database
resources (the database itself, the DBMS and other related
software)
• Authorizing access to the database
• Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
• Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and
software resources
• Accountable for problems like poor security, poor
performance of the system
• Involves in all steps of database development
[Link] Designer (DBD)
• Identifies the data to be stored and choose the
appropriate structures to represent and store
the data.
• Should understand the user requirement and
should choose how the user views the
database.
• Involve on the design phase before the
implementation of the database system.
• We have two distinctions of database designers, one involving in the logical and
conceptual design and another involving in physical design.
1. Logical and Conceptual DBD
• Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the organization
• Identifies constraints on each data
• Understand data and business rules in the organization
• Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual level and
consider one specific data model at logical design phase.
2. Physical DBD
• Take logical design specification as input and decide how it should be physically
realized.
• Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS with respect to tables and
integrity constraints. (DBMS dependent designing)
• Select specific storage structure and access path to the database
• Design security measures required on the database
3. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst
• System analyst determines the user requirement and how
the user wants to view the database.
• The application programmer implements these
specifications as programs; code, test, debug, document
and maintain the application program.
• Determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert, update
and delete data in the database.
• The application could use any high level programming
language according to the availability, the facility and the
required service.
4. End Users
• Workers, whose job requires accessing the database frequently for various purpose. There are different
group of users in this category.
1. Naïve Users:
• Sizable proportion of users
• Unaware of the DBMS
• Only access the database based on their access level and demand
• Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.
2. Sophisticated Users
• Are users familiar with the structure of the Database and facilities of the DBMS.
• Have complex requirements
• Have higher level queries
• Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business analysts, etc
3. Casual Users
• Users who access the database occasionally.
• Need different information from the database each time.
• Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their needs.
• Are most of the time middle to high level managers
• Three-Level database architecture
• External Level: Users' view of the database. Describes
that part of database that is relevant to a particular
user. Different users have their own customized view
of the database independent of other users.
• Conceptual Level: Community view of the database.
Describes what data is stored in database and
relationships among the data.
• Internal Level: Physical representation of the
database on the computer. Describes how the data is
stored in the database.
Reading assignment
Data Independence
Logical Data Independence:
• Refers to immunity of external schemas to changes in conceptual schema.
• Conceptual schema changes e.g. addition/removal of entities should not require changes to
external schema or rewrites of application programs.
• The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change the external schemas
and their application programs.
Physical Data Independence
•
• The ability to modify the physical schema without changing the logical schema
• Applications depend on the logical schema
• In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined
so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
• The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change the conceptual schema
• Refers to immunity of conceptual schema to changes in the internal schema
• Internal schema changes e.g. using different file organizations, storage structures/devices
should not require change to conceptual or external schemas.
The distinction between a Data Definition Language (DDL) and a Data Manipulation
Language (DML)
Database Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Allows DBA or user to describe and name entitles, attributes and relationships
required for the application.
• Specification notation for defining the database schema
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• Provides basic data manipulation operations on data held in the database.
• Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data
model
• DML also known as query language
Procedural DML: user specifies what data is required and how to get the data.
Non-Procedural DML: user specifies what data is required but not how it is to be retrieved
SQL is the most widely used non-procedural language query language
• End !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
