LANDFORMS IN ARID

AND SEMI ARID AREAS

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 DEFINITIONS
Deserts:
Are areas that receive less than 250
millimeters (10 inches) of rain annually.

Aridity: A condition where a

geographical area receives insufficient
rainfall, hence has little or lack vegetation
covers due to moisture deficiency
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Types of Deserts:
a)Sandy deserts: - covered by large deposits
of sand; known as Erg in the Sahara
b)Stony deserts: - are covered by angular
pebbles, gravels and boulders; they are
known as Reg in Algeria and Serir in Libya
& Egypt.
c)Rocky deserts: - are dominated by bare
rock surfaces and are known as Hamada
in the Sahara desert.
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 LOCATION OF WORLD’S MAJOR
DESERTS

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 Tadrart Acacus desert in western
Libya, part of the Sahara

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 WORK OF THE WIND IN ARID AREAS
•Wind erodes the earth’s surface when its
velocity is very high.
•As the speed of wind declines, it deposits
the particles in transit.

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 Why is wind action more distinct in hot
deserts?
• There are a lot of loose dry particles
ready to be picked up by wind.
• Vegetation cover is scanty making
surfaces vulnerable to erosion.
• Strong tropical storms are common in
hot deserts.

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 Difference between Wind Erosion &
Stream Erosion
• Wind has a low density compared to
water; it can not pick up and transport
coarse materials.
• Wind is not confined to channels, it can
spread over large areas, as well as high
into the atmosphere.

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 Ways in which wind erosion takes place.
•Deflation-This involves the lifting and
blowing away of loose materials from the
ground.
•Abrasion-The sandblasting of rock surfaces
by wind.
•Attrition-The wearing down of each other of
particles in transit so that their sizes are
greatly reduced and grains are rounded into
millet seed sand.
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 Erosional Landforms

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 a) Blowouts or Deflation
Hollows
These are depressions created when
wind removes loose unconsolidated
material from the surface.

Their formation is due to the eddying

action of wind.
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 Formation Process of Deflation Hollows
Physical weathering and abrasion in deserts result
in large scale production of unconsolidated materials
of dust and sand particles.
The loose materials are then scooped/removed by
wind through deflation forming a shallow depression
The basin is widened and deepened through
continued wind abrasion and deflation forming a
depression called deflation hollow.

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Oasis formation
Wind eddies remove unconsolidated materials
from the surface through deflation.
Wind deflation, weathering and abrasion
further enlarge and deepen the depression.
The surface of the depression is lowered until
it reaches the water bearing rocks/aquifer/water
table.
Water oozes out of the ground and collects in
the depression to form Oasis.
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 b) Desert Pavements
These are deserts surfaces characterized
by a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel.

They are created as the wind removes

fine material, leaving the coarse particles
behind.
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 Desert pavement- The sand and rock of
China's Turpan Depression

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 c) Rock Pedestal
These are projecting rock masses with
an irregular edge formed on the alternate
bands of hard and soft rocks due to the
sandblasting effects of winds .
Near their bases where the friction is
greatest, the process of undercutting
produces rock of mushroom shape called
mushroom rock or gour.
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 Formation of a rock
pedestal.
i. Its formation is preceded by the
existence of a rock out crop with
alternating hard and soft rock
layers.

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 Pedestal - formation
Fig 001; Existence of an outstanding rock mass with alternating layers

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ii. Wind abrades the softer layers more
and also is concentrated at the base of
the out crop.

iii. An irregular rock mass with protruding

layers of resistant rocks alternating with
layers of less resistant rocks called a
rock pedestal or gour.
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 Pedestal - formation
Fig.02;Wind abrades softer layers and at the base more, creating a rock pedestal

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 A rock pedestal west of Moab,
Utah

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 d) Mushroom Blocks
-
This is a massive rock with a broad
smoothed and rounded top and a
very narrow bottom.

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 Formation process of mushroom
blocks
A homogenous rock of uniform
hardness and resistance lie vertically in
the path of wind ladened with weathered
materials.

Wind abrasion is more intensive at the

base of the vertically laid rock mass.
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The top part of the rock undergoes slow,
gradual polishing and smoothing (fewer
airborne materials at this level).

This differential abrasion results into a

structure with a broad top but a very
narrow base called a mushroom block

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Mushroom Block formed by non-uniform
weathering

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The Kelchstein (Chalice Rock) near Oybin, Lusatian Mountains,
Germany
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Rock formation at Mushroom Rock State
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Park, Kansas
 Mushroom rocks in Egypt
Mushroom rocks in Egypt

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 e) Zeugens
This is a ridge and furrow landscape.
It is formed from a massive jointed/cracked
rock.
The rock has alternating layers of resistant
and less resistant rocks lying horizontally to
one another
It lies in the path of prevailing wind ladened
with weathered materials.
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 Formation process of Zeugens
Physical weathering assists in widening
the joints/cracks on the upper layers of
rock and causing the rock to disintegrate
along the cracks/joints

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Prevailing winds then remove and carry
the loose unconsolidated materials
through deflation.

Abrasion continues to act on the lines of

weakness, enlarging and deepening the
furrows
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 Formation of a Zeugen
Wind
Cracksopens up the
in the
Cracks on horizontal
resistance
rock stratarock 1

nce rock
Hard
rock
ck

Hard
rock
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The sculpting effects of wind abrasion
wear them into a “ridge and furrow”
landscape.
Ridges develop above the furrows with
protection from the hard rock cap.
The less resistant rocks are eroded
further leaving behind a hard standing
tabular mass/ridge on either sides of the
furrow called a zeugen
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 Zeugen

Har d
r ock.

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 f) Yardangs
These are elongated rock ridges of
vertically laid rocks.
They are formed when heterogeneous
rocks lie vertically and to the path of
prevailing wind laden with weathered
material

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 Formation Process of Yadangs
Wind abrasion acts directly on the less
resistant layers, removing and transporting
the weathered materials by deflation.
This results in the formation of large
furrows in between the resistant rocks

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Continued abrasion in the furrows
deepens them further leading to
formation of high ridges (about 6m)
called yardangs

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 Y ardangs
Yardangs

Resistant rock

Less resistant rock.

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Yardangs of the Lut desert of Iran
 Castellated Chimneys
•When rain water sharpens the Yardangs,
they begin to look like pointed needles or
a series of chimneys known as
Castellated Chimneys.

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 g) Inselberg
•They are isolated residual hills
rising abruptly from the level
ground.

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 h) Dreikanter or Ventifacts
•A ventifact is a stone with the surface
smoothed and flattened under prolonged
attack by windblown sand.

•Those with three wind-faceted surfaces

are called Dreikanter

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 ventifacts

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 A ventifact in Libya.

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 Ventifacts

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Ventifact
 Wind transportation.

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 Factors Influencing Wind Transport
i. Strength and speed of wind – strong winds
transport more and heavier materials compared
to a weak wind.
ii.Obstacles – Intervening obstacles e.g. rock
outcrops/desert vegetation on the path of a
prevailing wind reduces its speed causing the
wind to drop some of its load.
iii.Nature of load – Light particles such as fine
dust are easily picked up by wind and blown to
far distances.
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iv.Vegetation cover/water mass – areas
where the surface is covered by
vegetation/ a water mass, the sand
particles are bound together. This reduces
the ability of wind to pick and transport
these particles.
v.Periodic changes in weather – e.g. sudden
short rains may interfere with
transportation
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Wind transports its load in the
following ways;

•Suspension.

•Saltation

•Surface creep
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a) Suspension: -
 This involves the transportation of
very fine particles e.g. dust that are
held in the wind above the ground.
 They are lifted high/clear of the
ground by air currents and carried to
greater distances e.g. dust storms.
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 Suspension.

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b) Saltation: -
 This involves the movement of medium
sized sand particles are lifted from the
ground by eddy action then dropped on
the ground by gravity.
 They are moved in a series of short
hops or jumps along the desert surface

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 Saltation by wind
Saltation

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c) Surface Creep: -
 This is the movement of heavy
unconsolidated large materials/small
stones/pebbles that are dragged along
the ground by wind current

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 WIND DEPOSITION.

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Wind Deposition occurs when the
speed/strength of wind is reduced.

This results in the rate of

transportation reducing and hence
the wind deposits its load

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-
The factors that influence the rate of wind
deposition in arid areas include:
a) Presence of intervening obstacles –

This checks / slows down the speed of
wind forcing it to drop some load.
b) Nature of the desert surface –

moist grounds impedes the transportation
of materials close to the ground due to
friction.

The materials are dropped.
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c) Strength and direction of wind –
 When the wind slackens/slows down,
it begins to drop some of its load.

 Similarly when winds blowing from

different directions meet, collision
occurs resulting in some of the load
being dropped.
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d)Amount of load carried –
 Materials carried by overloaded wind
constantly collide among themselves
causing some of them to be dropped.
e) Variation in weather conditions –
Moist conditions/showers lead to
deposition of the load suspended in the
air.
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 Resultant Features of Wind
Deposition

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(a)Sand dunes
This are low ridges or hills of sand
that have been accumulated and
sorted by wind,
They mainly occur in the interior of
deserts and along low lying coasts

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 Sand dunes in Death Valley, California
(photograph by Richard Frear).

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 Factors influencing formation of
dunes.
•Availability of sand.
•The strength and direction of wind.
•The nature of the surface.
•The presence of an obstacle on the path
of the wind movement.
•The presence of vegetation.
•The presence of ground water reaching
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Sand dunes are further classified into :
i. Barchans / Crescent Dunes.

It develops when sand particles accumulate
around an obstacle that lies in the path of wind.

The obstacle causes the wind to deposit some of
the sand by trapping it on the windward side to
form a low hill/ridge.

Continued deposition makes the mound of sand
to grow bigger and blow over to the leeward
side.
•

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
Eddy currents on the leeward slopes lead to
formation of a shallow depression and a concave
slope.

Continuous accumulation and forward movement of
sand on the windward slope and the effect of wind
eddies on the leeward slopes results into the
formation of a crescent shaped dune called a
barchan
-
Barchans may be found as individual or as a group
of hills of sand
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05/12/25
 Barchans
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ii. Seif / Longitudinal Dunes
 These are sand dunes that are deposited parallel to
each other by troughs.
 They are parallel to the path of prevailing wind
 As the prevailing winds blow between the dunes, it
creates eddies that move sand towards the sides
 This lead to accumulation of sand on the sides of the
dune.
 The dunes are lengthened/elongated by the prevailing
winds to form long and narrow steep ridges called seif
dunes.

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More illustration
 These are elements formed in desert areas
which are long and parallel to each other
separated by troughs.
 They are formed in areas where there are
prevailing winds which are interrupted by
strong cross-winds.
 The cross-winds divide the sand side by side
thus heading them into long parallel done
which are separated from each other by
trough.
 The ridges of sand are then known as Seif.
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Seif dunes developing from barchans
iii. Transverse and wake dunes
 These are wave-like shaped sand
dunes that are separated from one
another by a flat bottomed trough.
 They are formed by light to
moderate winds that blow from one
direction.
 They are formed in areas with a lot
of sand
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 Transverse Dunes.
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This leads to an accumulation of
sand in a series of transverse
ridges/dunes.
If the sand dune forms on the
leeward side of the larger dune
trailing away in the direction of
wind to form a wake dune
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 Transverse Dunes

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iv) Parabolic Dunes
The shape of these dunes resembles the
shape of barchans except that their tip
points into the wind rather than
downwind.

Parabolic dunes form where vegetation

partly covers the sand.
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 Parabolic Dunes

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 SUMMARY

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CLASS EXCERICISE – (10 mins)
a)Study the following diagrams
and name the features marked
A, B, C and D

b)In pairs, discuss how each

feature is formed.

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 A

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05/12/25
Action of water in arid
areas and the resultant
features.

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Introduction
 Arid areas are rain deficient and this
exposes the surface rock to intense
weathering.

Rain here is very erratic and when it

comes, it comes in torrents that may
cause floods
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The floods may result into various
landforms as the loose
unconsolidated desert surface
receives the rain.

Features that result from water

action in arid areas include:-

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a) Wadis
 This is a deep sided dry valley in arid
lands formed when flash floods occur
on steep and undulating landscape
 They are formed by strong surface run
offs/flash floods that cut small rills
that later develop into gullies
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Continued erosion by the streams
enlarge the gullies rapidly to
produce steep sided valleys called
wadis.
Wadis may be describes as dry desert
water course

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 Wadi
Gully.

w adi
Rill.

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Camels in the Guelta d'Archei, in North-
05/12/25 Eastern Chad
b) Bajadas/Bahadas
 This is a continuous gentle sloping
fringe of angular scree, gravel and
coarse sand around the margins of an
inland basin in a desert landscape.
 They can also form along the base of a
mountain range in semi arid areas
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 They form when a series of alluvial
fans unite/join/coalesce together at
the point where the stream/river
leaves a constricted/narrow valley

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 Bahada
Alluvial f ans and Bahada

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c) Inselbergs
This is a steep isolated round topped mass of
rock standing in an extensive flat area in arid
areas
It results from wind erosion and sheet wash
that removes the weathered material to leave a
mass resistant rock standing on its own to form
an inselberg
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 Inselberg.
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d) Mesas and buttes
 Mesas are extensive flat topped residual
tablelands that are capped with resistant
rock layers in ASALs
 Buttes are also flat topped hills capped
with resistant rock layers which remain
after denudation of a plateau in ASALs.
 They are less extensive compared to mesas
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Mesas and buttes are formed within plateaus
comprising of resistant sedimentary rocks
that are not easily eroded by sheet floods
The less resistant surface layers of rocks
undergo physical weathering and later
removed by sheet floods until a horizontal
layer of rock that protects the layers beneath
from erosion is exposed/reached
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This results in residual hills with
tabular shapes called Mesas

Continued erosion reduces the mesas to

Buttes

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 Mesa and butte

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e) Pediment

This is a gently sloping rock platform with
bare or thin layer of deposited loose
materials/debris stretching away from the
foot of a ridge or mountain in ASAL’s

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They are formed through the following
processes: -
When a slope retreats i.e. when
progressive back wearing of soil profile
occur in the course of weathering and
erosion, the steep mountain/hill front then
retreats forming a low angle slope known
as pediment
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• Lateral planation by streams, sheet floods, rills and
downwash resulting from rain storms

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(a) Pediplain/Pediplane
- These are extensive low and sloping lands formed in ASALs when large scale adjacent
pediments join up due to widespread surface water erosion in arid areas
- When pediments surround an original highland, the slopes at the edges of the highland
continue to retreat all round forming extensive pediments
- Continued water erosion reduces the highlands to residual hills that are eventually eroded
to form a continuous plane with many concave surface called pediplanes/pediplain

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(a) Playas
- This is a basin of inland drainage that contains a shallow fluctuating lake that is usually
saline
- They originate from wind deflation to form depressions in ASALs
- Water from torrential downpours in ASALs flow into the depression to form small
fluctuating lakes called playas

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(a) Salinas
- When playas dry up due to intense evaporation from high temperatures in arid
areas, it leaves a hard salty crystal surface called salina/salar

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(a) Dry river valleys
- During the short and wet season in arid areas, sheet and flash floods will collect
in river valleys to form fast flowing streams.
- During the dry season, such river beds remain dry to form dry river valleys in
ASALs

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• Significance of the resultant features of action of wind and water in
arid areas
i. Sand harvested from desert surfaces is used in building and

construction
ii. Water from oases and pans provide water for irrigation and

domestic uses.
iii. Desert
landscape are ideal for military training and testing of weapons as well as
experimental grounds for spacecrafts this is because they are sparsely settled
iv. The unique desert features e.g. yardangs, rock pedestal attract tourists who in turn bring
foreign exchange
v. Desert surfaces can be used for recreation such as the Dakar motor rally
vi. Loess/alluvial deposits have fertile soils suitable for agriculture
vii.Sand dunes are unstable and hinder establishment of infrastructure
viii.Desert soil is infertile thus hinder agriculture

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Butte
•It is an isolated flat-topped
hill like a mesa, but smaller

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Wadi

•It is a dry desert

watercourse.

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 Wadi
Gully.

w adi
Rill.

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 Camels in the Guelta
d'Archei, in north-eastern
Chad

Camels in the Guelta d'Archei, in north-eastern

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Chad
Bahada (Bajada
• This is a continuous gentle, sloping
fringe of angular scree, gravel and
coarse sand around the margins of an
inland basin in a desert landscape.

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 Bahada
Alluvial f ans and Bahada

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 Bahada, playa and fans

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Pediment
• Gentle sloping surface of low relief
from residual uplands being bounded
on the upslope end by a piedmont
angle and the downslope end which
merges into an alluvial plain.

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Piedmont angle.
• A Sharp break of slope at the point
where the piedmont meets rock
residuals

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Peneplain
• Extensive area of low relief dominated
by broad floodplains and gentle
interfluves, with isolated upstanding
areas of resistant rocks.

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Pediplain(Pediplane)
• This is a Surface of low relief, broken
by occasional residual hills, a result of
coalescence of a number of
pediments.

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Alluvial fan
• An assemblage of sediments marking
places where a stream moves from a
steep gradient to a flatter gradient and
suddenly loses transporting power

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 Alluvial fan

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Playa
• Playa is a shallow fluctuating lake-bed,
generally the shore of, or remnant of,
an endorheic lake

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 Playa.

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Salt pan/salina/salar

• Salt pan is a flat expanse of ground

covered with salt and other minerals,
usually shining white under the sun,
where water pools collect when it
rains.

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Etosha Pan in northern Namibia

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Etosha Pan in northern Namibia

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Canyon:
• A canyon is a deep gorge of a river,
often one flowing through a desert,
but fed by water from outside.

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Dry river valleys.
• These are the valleys occupied by
sheet floods and flash floods during
the short wet season.

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 Desert features
illustrated.
Guelta.
Permanent rock
Mesa.
pool in mountain.
Flat-topped
Wadi.
mountain with
Gully formed by Butte
steep sides..
flash floods.. Small flat-topped
isolated outcrop of Salt pan.
rock. Salty lake that dries out leaving behind a
plain of salt.

Rocky terrain.
Many hot deserts consist of a
vast flat region of rock,
littered with stones

oasis
Fertile area
supplied
Ventifacts
with water
Polished
by a
stones. The
spring.
Yardang. wind sand-
Elongated pillar, blasts
grooved in the Pedestal rock. stones
direction of Low-lying sand driven by smooth
wind.. the wind, wears away a
rock near its base.. Depression.
Hollows in the ground scoured
out by sand-bearing wind . Sand dunes
They cover a fifth of the world’s hot deserts.
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Desert types
• Sandy dessert/ erg- This is an undulating plain of
sand
• Stony desert/reg -The surface of this desert was
covered with boulders and angular pebbles.
• Rocky desert/Hamada -It is characterized by a bare
rock surface.

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Badlands
• It develops in semi desert
regions mainly as a result of
water erosion produced by
violent rain storms.
• The land is broken by
extensive gullies and ravines
which are separated by steep
ridges.

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 • The significance of the resultant features of action
of water and wind in arid areas.
• a) Water from the oasis is used for irrigation,
domestic use and industrial use.
• b) Desert landscape forms an ideal site for military
training, testing of weapons since it is less densely
• populated.

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 • c) Loess form fertile soils in wetter lands where they
are finally deposited. For example the pampas of
• Argentina and Hwang Ho valley in china originate their
soils from desert loess.
• d) Desert features form a major tourist attraction. For
example the rock pedestals, Yardangs and Zeugens.

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 • e) Seasonal streams can be dammed to supply water
to the surroundings
• f) Desert features can inhibit infrastructural
development in an area. Road construction can be a
problem in
• areas prone to sand dune formation and migration.
• g) The hot sun in deserts provides a large potential for
solar energy.

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 • h) Basins and blow-outs may hold permanent lakes
and give rise to formation of oases thus providing a
source of water permanently.

• i) Sand dune migration may destroy rich agricultural

farms and threaten human and animal life.

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