AN INTRODUCTION TO

INDIAN ART
TEXTUAL REFERENCES TO VISUAL
ARTS
Kamasutra- dated 3rd century CE- mentions • Vishnudharmottara- roughly dated to 650 CE-
painting in the list of 64 arts- gives it the has a chapter called ‘Chitrasutra’ in its third
fourth rank Khanda
• Concept of Shadanga- the six limbs of art:
1. Roopa bheda- the capacity to differentiate
between different forms
2. Pramana- proportion
3. bhava- emotions
4. Lavanya-yojanam- the infusion of grace
5. Sadrisya- realism and actuality in art
6. Varnika bhang- colour variation
 PREHISTORIC ART IN INDIA
• Examples of Mesolithic rock art have been found in the following
sites:

Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh

Sohagighat in Uttar Pradesh
Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand
Ezhuthu Guha in Kerala
 BHIMBETKA
• Discovered by
VS Wakankar
in 1957
• Has evidences
of rock art
starting from
the Upper
paleolithic
period to the
early historical
period
 THE PROTO-HISTORIC PERIOD
Discovery of the Harappan
TIMELINE OF THE HARRAPAN
Civilization CIVILIZATION

• 1872- Alexander Cunningham, first

Director General of ASI- found some
stone tools, pottery and a seal with an  Early Harappan phase- formative, proto-urban
image of a bull in Harappa- but did not phase- 3200-2600 BCE
realize their significance
 Mature Harappan phase- 2600- 1900 BCE
• 1920- Daya Ram Shahni started
excavating Harappa  Late Harappan phase- post-urban phase, when
• 1921- RD Banerji started to excavate the cities declined- 1900- 1300 BCE
Mohenjodaro
• 1924- John Marshall announces the
discovery of a new civilisation
The excavated lower town and citadel of Mohenjodaro
‘ The Great Bath’ of Mohenjodaro
 POTTERY
• The Harappan civilization
yields evidence of
standardised and
sophisticated craft
production
• Most of the pots were
wheel-made- varieties
include black-on-red,
grey, buff and black-
and-red ware
• Designed with motifs
including geometric
patterns, fish scales,
peepal leaves, birds and
so on

Painted Funerary Pottery, Harappa

Painted pot, Chanha-daro, dated to
2600-2000 BCE
 ORNAMENTS AND BEADS
• Had a flourishing bead-
making industry- used a
cylindrical drill to make
beads out of steatite,
carnelian, terracotta, gold,
silver and so on
• Faience was used to make
beads and bangles- a
paste made of crushed
quartz and coloured with
different minerals
• Harappan Carnelian
beads were found in royal
burials of Mesopotamia
• Balakot and Nageshwar
were major centres of Bead collection, Harappa, dated to
shell working Carnelian beads, Dholavira 1700 BCE
 SEALS
• Seals were usually made of steatite
• Coated with alkali and heated to give them a shiny surface
• Engraving on them was done through the intaglio method

Unicorn seal, Glazed steatite, Mohenjodaro

 Gilgamesh seal, Steatite, Mohenjodaro, National
Pashupati seal, Steatite, Mohenjodaro, c. 2600-1900 BCE,
Museum, Delhi
National Museum, Delhi
 • Discovered by the archaeologist
Kashinath Narayan Dikshit during a
1925–26 excavation
• Identified as a Priest-king by John
Marshall and Mortimer Wheeler because
of associations with Mesopotamia

The Priest King, Steatite, Mohenjodaro, c.

2100-1700 BCE, National Museum, Karachi
 • unearthed by
Ernest Mckay under
the supervision of
John Marshall
• Use of lost wax
technique
• Identified by
Marshall as a
nautch girl

The Dancing Girl, Bronze, Mohenjodaro, c. 2500 BCE, National Museum, Delhi
Male Torso, Jasper stone, Harappa, c. 2500 BCE, Mother Goddess, Teracotta, Mohenjodaro, c. 2700-
National Museum, Delhi 2100 BCE, National Museum, Delhi
 MAURYAN ART

Capital
• Sees the appearance of monumental sculpture and
architecture for the first time in the historical
period in South Asia
• Founded around 324 BCE by Chandragupta – had
its center in the Magadha region
• Asoka sought to spread his message of dhamma by
inscribing edicts on rocks and pillars
• Most sculptures and pillars are made of polished
Chunar sandstone
THE START OF ROCK-CUT
ARCHITECTURE
• Caves were excavated in Barbar
hills and Nagarjuni hills, in Bihar-
contain the inscriptions of Asoka
and his son, Dasharata
• Were dedicated for the use of
Ajivika monks
• Are characterized by highly
polished interiors
• Sculptural decoration is present
only in the façade of the Loma
Rishi cave- earliest example of a
chaitya arch- relief depicting
elephants
Didargang Yakshi/ Chauri- Parkham Yaksha, Chunar Male Torso, Chunar Sandstone,
bearer , Chunar Sandstone, Sandstone, Mathura Museum Lohanipur, Patna Museum
Patna Museum
 STUPA ARCHITECTURE
• Houses the relics of the Buddhas, his close
companions and other saints
• Types of relics-
1. Saririka- bodily remains
2. Paribhogika- belongings of the Buddha and saints

• Asoka has been credited with redistributing the

relics of Buddha and building 64 stupas
• The Sarnath, Dhamekh , Dharmarajika and Sanchi
stupa no. 1 have Mauryan origins
• Symbolised the mahaparinibbina of the Buddha
 STUPAS IN THE NORTH-WEST
• Characterised by the presence of sculptural decoration on the base and the dome
• Influence of Hellenistic and Parthian styles can be seen

• Takht-I Bahi (Throne of Origins ) stupa

and monastery complex, dated to the 1st
century CE, near Mardan, Pakistan
• Use of diaper masonary- influence from
the Parthian style
 Chaitya Arch

Relief pilasters with

Corinthian capitals

Torana-like structure

The Shrine of the Double-eagle, Sirkap, near Taxila, Pakistan 1 st

century CE
Guldara stupa, 2nd century CE, Afghanistan
 CENTRAL INDIAN STUPAS
• Usually only have sculptural decoration on the toranas (gateways) and the vedikas (railings)-
follow the style of wooden prototypes
SANCHI STUPA

• located near the city of Vidisha,

modern-day Besnagara- was the
birthplace of Asoka’s queen Devi
• The anda was contructed in the
Asokan period (3rd century BCE)
• Was enlarged and a Vedika added in
the Sunga period (2nd to 1st century
BCE)
• During the Satvahana period (mid 1st
century BCE to early 3rd century CE) -
the intricately carved toranas were
installed

Sanchi stupa no. 1,contruction from 3rd century

BCE to 1st century CE in stages, Madhya Pradesh
• The railings carry
shallow reliefs
dating from the
Sunga period
• Most remarkable are
the reliefs on the
toranas dating to
the Satvahana
period

The Northern Torana

Shalabhanjika Yakshi, on the Eastern torana
The Great Departure, from the Eastern Torana
Gaja Lakshmi relief, from the Eastern torana Vesantara Jataka, from the Northern Torana
Stupa no. 2, Sanchi, Sunga period , c. 100 BCE
 BHARHUT

• Dates to the Sunga period- it

does not survive today-
remains were recovered by
Alexander Cunningham in
1873- reconstructed in the
Indian Museum, Kolkatta
Mahakapi Jataka relief Veneration of the Stupa
STUPAS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
• Andhra stupas usually consist of a spoked wheel plan made of
bricks and the remaining spaces filled in with mud - reference to
the dhamma-chakra
• includes the Amravati, Jaggayyapetta and Nagarjunakonda
stupas- none of them survive today

Amravati Stupa

• was known as the Mahachaitya

• Was near the capital of the later Satvahanas, Dhanyakataka
• Mauryan inscription has been found in this site- dated back to
the Asokan period in the 3rd century BCE
SYMBOLISM IN EARLY BUDDHIST
SITES
• Conception (avakranti)- Maya lying down- an elephant above her

• Birth (jati)- Maya seated on a lotus - similarity to Gaja-Lakshmi

• Departure from the palace (mahabhinishkramana)- bridled horse- groom holding an

umbrella over an invisible rider

• Enlightenment (nibbana)- the boddhi tree, umbrella, throne

• First sermon at Sarnath (dharmachakra-pravartana)- the chakra

• Death (parinibbana)- the stupa

 KUSHANA SCULPTURE
• The Kushana dynasty came into in the 1st century CE- originated from the
Yueh-chi tribe in China
• Two sculptural schools based around their two capitals- Gandhara and
Mathura
• First anthromorphic representation of the Buddha- debate between A.
Foucher and Ananda Coomaraswamy
Standing Boddhisatva
Buddha, Schist Maitreya, Schist
stone, 1st to 2nd stone, 3rd
century CE century CE
Seated Buddha, red sandstone, 2nd century CE, Mathura
Figure of Kanishka, red sandstone, found in a site called
Mat, near Mathura, 2nd century CE
 GUPTA SCULPTURE

Ganga and Yamuna sculptures, Terracotta, 4th century CE,

Seated Buddha, Sandstone, 5 th
Ahhichattra
century CE, Sarnath
 ROCK-CUT CAVE ARCHITECTURE
• Started in the Mauryan period- Barbar and Nagarjuni hills- dedicated to the Ajivikas

• Rock-cut Buddhist monasteries in the Western ghats:

• 1st phase- 100 BCE- 20 BCE- Konditve, Nadsur, Bhaja, Tuja, Kondane, Ajanta, Nasik and Bedse
• 2nd phase- 50-200 CE- Karle, Kuda, Mahad, Kanheri- expansions at Nasik and Junnar

• Jaina Caves in the Udaygiri and Khandagiri hills, in Orrisa- the Hathigumpha inscription tells us
that it was commissioned by the Chedi dynasty- dated to 1st century BCE
 UDAYAGIRI CAVES, MADHYA PRADESH

• A group of rock-cut
caves located near
the site of Sanchi-
dated to 4th -5th
century CE (Gupta
period)- sculptural
depiction of Hindu
dieties
• Cave 20- is a Jaina
shrine

Cave 5, Varaha rescuing Prithvi

Cave 13,
Vishnu
reclining on
Sheshnaga
 Mahisasuramardini, on the wall outside Cave 6
Mukhalinga, cave 4
 AJANTA CAVES
• Buddhist monastery carved into the Sahaydri hills
• Two phases of activity- 5 caves excavated during the Satvahana period (1st century BCE to 3rd
century CE) - 23 caves in the Vakataka period (mid-3rd to late 5th/ early 6th centuries)

Relief of Mahaparanibbina

Cave 26, Chaitya Hall

Façade of Cave 26

Cave 10- paintings dated to 2nd to 1st century BCE

Boddhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1 Boddhisattva Vajrapani, Cave 1
Mahajanaka Jataka, Cave 1
Mara-Vijaya, Cave 26
BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY

Ushnisa

Urna

Elongated earlobes
 ICONOGRAPHY OF BODDHISATTVAS
• Vajrapani- the personification of Buddha’s power- holds a thunderbolt

• Manjushri bodhisattva- symbol of prajna or transcendental wisdom -handsome

man holding a sword- the incisive sword of wisdom- cuts away ignorance

• Avalokitesvara/ Padmapani- the embodiment of compassion- holding a lotus- the

celestial Buddha Amitabha resides in his crown

• Maitreya- the Buddha of the future- crowned, princely figure

 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND
SCULPTURE
• The structural temple first developed in the Gupta period from the 6th
century CE
• These are the major regional classifications of temple architecture:
1. Nagara- the Northern style
2. Vesara- style prevalent in Central India
3. Dravida- the Southern style
4. Kalinga- style prevalent in Orrisa- seen as a sub-category of the
Nagara style
 NAGARA STYLE
• The earliest
examples of the
Nagara style
include
Dashavatara
temple at
Deogarh, the brick
temple at
Bhitargaon, the
Mahadeva temple
at Nachna Kuthara
and the Brick
Lakshmana temple
at Sirpur
• The Nagara style
reached its fully
developed form by
the 8th century
Dashavatar Temple, Deogarh, UP 6th century
 • The basic plan of Nagara temples are
usually a square with projections on the
middle of every side which gives it a
cruciform shape
• 3 (triratha), 5 (pancharatha), 7
(saptaratha).

Panchayatana Temples

when the main temple is surrounded by four secondary

shrines at the four corners
Example-
Dasavastara temple, Deogarh
Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho
 SOLANKI OR MARU-GURJARA
TEMPLES
• Refers to the temples made under the influence of the
Solanki dynasty which ruled over Rajasthan and Gujarat
region from the 11th to the 13th century and the
prosperous Jain community of the region
• Examples include the Sun temple at Modhera, Gujarat
(11th century)
• Ranakpur temple, Rajasthan- 15th century
• The Dilwara group of temples, Mount Abu, Rajasthan- built
between the 11th and 16th century – two main temples
1. Vimala Vasahi- dedicated to Adinatha- the first
Tirthankara- build by the minister of Bhimadeva I
Sun Temple, Modhera, 11th century
2. Luna Vasahi- dedicated to Neminatha- the 22nd
Tirthankara
Hall of the Vimal Vasahi temple, Dilwara
 KHAJURAHO TEMPLES

• Group of temples in the capital of the

Chandella dynasty who ruled from the mid-
10th and 12th century
• Use of sandstone of various colours
quarried from Panna
• Important temples include the Chausath
Yogini (dedicated to the 64 yoginis-
believed to be the earliest temple of this
complex), Laxmana temple and the
grandest being Kandariya Mahadeva
temple
• Erotic sculptures point to the influence of
Tantric cults such as the Kapalikas
Sculpture of a woman removing a thorn Wall reliefs on Kandariya Mahadeva, 11th
from her foot, Laxmana temple, 10th century
 KALINGA STYLE
• Important source for studying Kalinga architecture- Silpaprakasha by Ramachandra Kaulachara,
dated to 10th-11th century
• usually consists of a sanctuary to house the idol or the linga called the Deula or Garba griha and a
hall from where the pilgrims can view the idol called Jagamohana
• The crowning element- collectively known as the mastaka- topped by the ayudha of the diety
• Three categories of Kalinga temples:-

1. Rekha Deul
2. Pidha Deul
3. Khakhara Deul
 Rajarani temple Jagamohana-
11th century

Vaital Temple, Bhubaneswar, 9th century

Rajaranani temple Deula, 11th century
• Pidha style • Khakhara style
• Rekha style • Mostly used for • Rectangular base with barrel or
• Most common Jagamohanas vault-like tower
• Square base with curvilinear • Square base with pyramidical • Mostly used for Devi temples
tower tower
• Konark Sun temple
• Built during the reign of
the Ganga dynasty king
Narasimha I (1238-1264
CE)
• The Rekha deul is now
highly damaged
• Has twelve pairs of
wheels carved around
the base- supposed to
symbolize the 12 zodiac
signs
Standing Surya (parsva devata), chlorite, Konark, 13th
century, National Museum
 Cymbal player,
chlorite,
Narsimhadeva I Konark
as an Archer,
chlorite, Konark,
13th century
 DRAVIDA STYLE
• It was prevalent in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana
• Royal patronage of temples first
became prevalent under the
Pallavas – first commissioned rock-
cut temples in the 7th century CE-
Mahabalipuram
• Reached its zenith under the
Cholas- in the period 848–1280 CE
• Usually surrounded by boundary
walls known as prakaras
ELEPHANTA CAVES

• Excavated under the patronage

of the Kalachuri dynasty which
was in power in the Maharashtra
region from 520 to about 600 CE
• Located on a small island near
Mumbai
• Siva cave (cave no. 1)- dated to
the mid 6th century
• Elephanta has at least ten
distinct representations of
Shiva- including
Ardhanarishvara,
Gangadhar, the linga form
and the famous Sadashiva
 MAHABALIPURAM/ MAMALLAPURAM
• The town of
Mamallapuram was
established by the
Pallava king Narasimha I
Mamalla (630- 668)
• The complex consists of
excavated rock temples
and 9 free standing
monolithic temples
carved out of natural
rock- known as the
rathas- popularly named
after the Pandavas
• Carved out of granite
rock
The Penance of Arjuna
or the Descent of Ganga
bas Relief, 7th-8th
century,
Mamallapuram , Tamil
Nadu
Durga slays the Buffalo Demon Mahishasura. Mahishasuramardini Mandapa, Mamallapuram,
Tamil Nadu, India, c. 7th century, granite
Varaha holding Prithvi, Varaha Mandapa, Mamallapuram, Thiruvikrama, Varaha Mandap, Mamallapuram
located behind the Penance of Arjuna relief
 Temples under the Badami Chalukyas
• The Chalukyas of
Badami or the Early
Chalukyas - 6th to 8th
century- ruled in the
Deccan
• Important sites include
fBadami, Aihole,
Pattadakal, Alampur and
Mahakutesvar

Flying Couple, Durga Temple, Aihole, 7th-8th century

Rashtrakutas
• Ruled from 8th to 10th century-
initially feudatories of the Badami
Chalukyas
• Cave temples at Ellora and
Elephanta
• Ellora- consists of Brahmanical
(cave no. 13 to 29) and Jain cave
temples (cave no. 30 to 35)
• Most important- Kailasha temple-
cave no. 16- patronized by Krishna I-
9th century – apart from the main
temple, also consists of a nandi
shrine and gopuram
Kailasha Temple, Ellora, Maharasthra, 9th century
Ravana shaking the Mount Kailash, relief in cave no. 26, Dhumar Lena shrine, Ellora
 CHOLA PERIOD
• The Dravidian style of
architecture reached new
heights under the patronage
of the Cholas who ruled in
the period 848–1280 CE
• prominent temples built by
the Cholas include the
Brihadeshvara Temple of
Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara
Temple of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram, the
Airavatesvara Temple of
Darasuram and the
Sarabeswara (Shiva )Temple.
• Also replaced older brick
temples with stone ones

Brihadeshwara temple or the Raja Rajeshwara temple, Thanjavur, 10 th century

• Construction of the
Brihadeswara temple
was started in 995 by
Raja Raja I to
commemorate his
victories in Sri Lanka
• Importance is given to
the Tripurantaka form
of Shiva
• Use of fine granite
stone
• Also known as Dakshina
Meru

Dwarpala figure
 Nayaka era murals

Nataraja niche sculpture

 Candesanugrahamurti, Brihadeshwara temple,
Brihadeshwara Temple, Gangaikondacholapuram, built by
Gangaikondacholapuram
Rajender I (1014- 1044)
 HOYSALA TEMPLES
• Ruled from 11th to 14th century-
originally feudatories of the later
Chalukyas- Vaishnavites
• Temples - Hoysalesvara at Halebid,
Chennakesava at Belur and Somnathpur
• Sculptures are characterized by over-
ornamentations- carved out of
soapstone
 PALA AND SENA SCULPTURE

• Pala dynasty - 8th to 12th centuries- the founder-

Gopala was chosen by the leaders of Bengal to
restore order to the region
• Followers of Buddhism
• Overseas trade with South-east Asia- Javanese
influence on art
• Replaced by the Senas - 10th to 12th centuries-
originated from the Kannada region- Shaivite
• Characterised by sensuous, lavish sculpture with
excessive ornamentation
• Bengal artists excelled more in making bronze and
octo-alloy (asta dhatu) sculptures-Stone
sculptures- made out of black chlorite / schist
(kasti-pathar)- cut in imitation of metal work
Boddhisatva Padmapani,Black Schist, 12th
century, Pala dynasty
Shiva and Parvati, Bronze,
9th century, Pala Dynasty
 CHOLA BRONZE
• The larger bronze sculptures- called utsava-devas-
used in processions during festivals as the dhruva-
devas - the main shrine images of the temple-usually
made out of stone or wood were too heavy to be
carried
• Also small bronze images for private worship
• Made by the cire perdue / lost wax technique
• From the 11th century- bronze images of the Alvar
and Nayanar saints

Devi, Bronze, 12th

century,
LateChola period
 Ananda Tandav- Represents the
cycle of creation, preservation
and destruction

• Flame in one hand- symbol of destruction

• Damru- symbol of creation
• Crushes the dwarf apasmara or
Muyalaka- the personification of
ignorance
 INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
• From the 10th century- there were raids by Turkish and Afghan groups into the
Indian subcontinent
• 1206- the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
• The first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate- Qutub-ud-din Aibak- initially an
ambassador of the Ghorid state- constructed the first Masjid-i-jami in Delhi- part
of the Qutb complex- today known as the Quwwut-ul-Islam Mosque
Trabeated Arch, Moth ki Majid, Lodhi Period True Arch, the Qutb Minar complex
CONSTRUCTION OF THE DOME
 Muqarnas

Kanguras- battlement decoration

Mihrab
 Inverted Lotus on Domes

Lotus motif

Jali work
• First phase of construction under Qutub-ud-din Aibak- 1191-1192
• 1199- extension of the mosque- start of the construction of the
minar
• Under Iltutmish- further expansion to the mosque- added 3
storeys to the Minar
• Ala-ud-din-Khaliji (1296-1316)- construction of the Alai
Darwaza
Alai Darwaza, 1311, the Qutb complex, Delhi
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq’s Tomb, 1325 CE, Delhi
 Tomb of Mohammad Shah, Sayyid Dynasty, 1450 CE

Sheesh Gumbad, Lodhi period, 1489-1517

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
• The Mughal dynasty was established in India in 1526,
by Babur, a prince from Farghana, Uzbekistan

HUMAYUN’S TOMB

• Designed by an Iranian architect named Mirak Mirza Ghiyas-

construction spanned from 1562 to 1571
• The patron for this project is believed to be Hajji Begum- or
the young emperor Akbar
Double Dome

Charbagh Garden