Group#4

Arooj Fayyaz Jumma Khan 2022-EN-02

Wrda Asim 2022-EN-15
Zunaira ramzan 2022-EN-18
Hira Shahid 2022-EN-26
Hamza Ilyas 2022-EN-31
Zarq Azhar 2022-EN-38

Topic:Disinfection
Introduction
 Regulatory Requirement for Wastewater
Disinfection

In the early 1900s to 1970s, wastewater treatment mainly focused on:

1.Removing dirty particles (like suspended or floating material)
2.Treating biodegradable organic matter
3.Killing harmful germs
But in 1972, the Clean Water Act was passed. Its main goal was:
"To make the nation’s waters clean enough for swimming & fishing"
After that, the U.S. EPA made rules in 1973 for proper wastewater
treatment. These rules included checking:
•BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
•TSS (Total Suspended Solids)
•Fecal coliform (FC) bacteria (which come from human & animal
waste)
By 2001, different places had different levels for fecal coliform (e.g.,
200 MPN/100mL – 500 MPN/100mL)
Disinfection Theory
What makes a good (ideal) disinfectant
The method we use today for disinfection
How disinfectants work
What factors affect how well they work
Disinfection Methods & Means
Chemical agents
Physical agents
Mechanical means
Radiation
Chemical Agents:

These are chemicals used to kill germs. Examples:

Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Ozone
Phenol & phenolic compounds
Alcohol
Soaps & detergents
Dyes (e.g., acridine)
Acids & heavy metals
Physical Methods:
Physical methods like heat, light, or filtration are used to kill germs without any chemicals.
Common physical methods include:
Heat:
 Boiling (Boiling water at 100°C for 10–15 min)
 Steam
 Dry heat
UV Light:
 UV light damages the DNA of germs & kills them
 Commonly used in water treatment plants, labs, & hospitals
Filtration:
 In this method, water or air is passed through a filter that traps germs
Sunlight:
 Sunlight has natural UV rays that can help kill some germs
Mechanical Means:
These are methods that physically remove germs from water, air, or
surfaces using tools or machines.
They do not kill the germs with heat or chemicals — they just separate
or trap them.
Methods:
Filtration
Sedimentation
Wiping
Ventilation system (e.g., HVAC filters in buildings & hospitals)
Radiation:
Radiation is a method that kills or damages germs using high-energy
rays. It does not use chemical or physical removal.
Types of Radiation:
UV radiation (used to disinfect drinking water, wastewater, medical
equipment)
Gamma radiation (mostly used for sterilizing medical tools & food
products)
Chlorine Compounds in Wastewater Treatment
• Widely used for disinfection in wastewater treatment.
• Large cities moving away from chlorine gas (Cl₂) due to safety
concerns.
• Increasing use of safer compounds like sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) and calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)₂].
• Form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) in water
 Chlorine Properties:
•Chlorine exists as a gas or liquid and has a greenish-yellow
color.
•The liquid form is 2.48 times heavier than air and vaporizes
quickly at room temperature, generating large amounts of gas.
•It is moderately soluble in water (up to 1% at 10°C).
•Chlorine is typically stored in high-pressure containers of
various sizes, ranging from small cylinders to large railcars.
Chlorine Backdraws:
•Toxicity:
It is highly toxic compound
•Regulatory Requirements:
Due to its toxicity, facilities must adhere to strict containment and
neutralization standards, as outlined in the Uniform Fire Code (UFC).
•Odorous Reactions:
Reaction with organic components in wastewater
•Carcinogenic/Mutagenic Byproducts:
Raising concerns about long-term exposure.
•Environmental Impact:
Residual chlorine in treated wastewater can be toxic to aquatic life.
Sodium Hypochlorite: Calcium Hypochlorite:

•Commonly used for disinfection. •Comes in powder, granules, or tablet

•Safety concerns: decomposes faster form.
at higher temperatures and sunlight. •Highly effective but needs dry and cool
•Requires careful storage and storage conditions to prevent reactions.
handling due to corrosion risks. •Popular for its availability and ease of use
Chemistry of Chlorine
Compounds
Two reactions takes place
Hydrolysis may be defined as the reaction in which chlorine gas combines with
water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCI).
• Cl₂ + H₂O ⇌ HOCl + HCl
• HOCl ⇌ OCl⁻ + H⁺ (pH-dependent equilibrium)
• HOCl is more effective than OCl⁻ as a disinfectant
Ionization of hypochlorous acid to hypochlorite ion (OCI) may be defined as
• HOCI →→ H* + OCI
HOCl is more effective than OCl⁻ as a disinfectant
• The total quantity of HOC) and OCI present in water is called the "free available
chlorine."
Factor influencing the action of
disinfectant
Factors:
• Contact time
• Concentration of disinfectant
• Intensity and nature of physical agents
• Temperature
• Type of organisms
• Nature of suspended liquid
 Contact time
Harriet Chick observed that:
“The greater the contact time, the greater the kill.”
In differential form:

If is the number of organisms at t=0, Now it can be integrated as:

We can plot a graph between and the time t.

 Numerical problem:

• A batch of water contains a microorganism population of

• Initial count 5CFU/mL
• After 8 minutes of contact with a disinfectant, the number of viable
organisms is measured to be N= 1CFU/mL
• Use Chick's Law:

• What is the inactivation rate constant k?

• Find time to reach N=1×
 Concentration of disinfectant
Herbert Watson reported that:
“The inactivation rate constant was related to the concentration of
disinfectant” as follows:

Convert it into linear form:

)]
The value of n can be obtained by plotting lnC and lnt for given level of
inactivation.
The value of n describes that if:
n=1, both the time and the concentration of disinfectant are equally
important
n>1, concentration is more important than time
n<1, time is more important than concentration
 Numerical Problem
A disinfection is used to kill bacteria in water if the rate of disinfection
is 3.454/min of disinfectant, yielding a 99.9% kill of bacteria in 10
minutes, calculate the disinfectant concentration, assuming n =1
Using the formula:

We can rearrange to solve for C:

 Intensity and nature of disinfectant
Heat and light are physical agents that have been used from time to time
in the disinfection of wastewater. It has been found that their
effectiveness is a function of intensity.

Physical Agent Influence on Disinfectant Action

High Temperature Increases efficiency (faster reaction)

Low Temperature Decreases efficiency

UV Light Can degrade or activate certain agents

 Intensity of temperature:
• The effect of temperature on the kill with the chemical disinfectant can
be represented by a form:
 Numerical problem:
Estimate the time required for a 99.9 percent kill for a chlorine dosage
of 0.05 mg/L at a temperature of 20°C and pH of 8.5. The test data
were obtained at a temperature of 5°C using a batch reactor.
(E=26800J/mol, R = 8.3144J/mol.K)
 Type of organisms
Type of Organism Resistance to Disinfectants Example
Gram-positive bacteria Low to moderate Staphylococcus aureus
Gram-negative bacteria Moderate to high E. coli, P. aeruginosa
Bacterial spores Very high C. difficile, Bacillus
Enveloped viruses Low HIV, SARS-CoV-2
Non-enveloped viruses Moderate to high Poliovirus, Norovirus
Fungi (yeasts/molds) Moderate Candida, Aspergillus
Protozoa (cysts) High Giardia, Entamoeba
 Nature of Suspended Liquid
Property Effect on Disinfection
High organic content Reduces effectiveness, may inactivate disinfectant

Acidic/alkaline pH May reduce or enhance depending on disinfectant type

High viscosity Slows down penetration and mixing

Hard water Reacts with some disinfectants, lowers activity
Cold temperature Slows chemical reactions
High microbial burden Requires more time or higher disinfectant strength
Case study: Disinfection in
Islamabad and Rawalpindi
• This study reports the baseline data of chlorination disinfection by-products such as
trihalomethanes (THMs) and their associated health risks in the water distribution
network of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The average concentration of total
trihalomethanes (TTHMs) and chloroform ranged between 575 and 595 μg/L. Chloroform
was one of the major contributors to the TTHMs concentration (>85%).Rawalpindi and
Islamabad are known as twin cities of Pakistan. These cities are supplied with drinking
water from Rawal Lake, Simly Dam, and Khanpur Dam after being treated in their
respective water treatment plants. Simly Dam is the largest water reservoir with a total
depth of approximately 2,300 ft (701 m). Disinfection by chlorination is practiced at
Simly, Khanpur, and Rawal Dam filtration plants as means of water disinfection, and
treated water is supplied to the public via distribution networks.
Sampling period
• THM monitoring was carried out at 30 different sampling sites across
the twin cities for 6 months.
 Methodology
• THM concentration was measured using gas chromatography &
electron captured detector equipped with fused silica capillary column.
Results
1. Higher THM concentrations
2. Chloroform levels
3. Cancer risk assessment
 For male 0.51^-3
 For female 1.2210^-3
Method of removal of these disinfections
• Activated carbon filtration
• Ion exchange
• Aeration
Conclusions
• Improved disinfection practices
• Infrastructure upgrades
 Comparison between different type of
disinfection techniques
Use Case
Technique Effective Against Residue Eco-Friendly Cost
Example
Chemical Bacteria, viruses Yes ❌ Low–Med Surface cleaning
Air & surface
UV Bacteria, viruses No ✅ Medium
sterilization
Water/air
Ozone Bacteria, spores No ⚠️ High
sterilization
Thermal Most pathogens No ✅ High Autoclaves
Food, medical
Steam Bacteria, spores No ✅ Medium
tools
Electrolyzed
Bacteria, viruses No ✅ Medium Food, hospitals
Water
 Disinfection By-Products and
Alternative Disinfectants
Formation of DBPs, Peracetic Acid, and Ozone/Hydrogen Peroxide
Formation of DBPs Due to the Addition of Ozone

 Ozone (O3​) does not form THMs and HAAs

 However, ozone can form other DBPs , including aldehydes, ketoacids, and
stable and unstable organic substances.
 Bromide in source water can lead to the formation of bromate, bromoform,
brominated acetic acids, bromoacetonitrile, and cyanogen bromide
 Precautions and careful distribution of ozone can generally minimize the
relative distribution of these by-products.
PAA Effectiveness and By-Product Formation

 Limited data suggests principal end products are CH3​COOH (acetic acid), O2​, CO2​, and H2​O, none
considered highly toxic at typical concentrations.
 Research on its bactericidal effectiveness and the impact of wastewater characteristics is ongoing (refer to
current literature).
 A U.S. EPA (1999) report considered PAA for combined sewer overflows (CSOs) due to:
 Absence of persistent residuals and byproducts
 Not affected by pH
 Short contact time
 High effectiveness against bacteria and viruses

https://youtu.be/EDX_b--lwHM?si=GDlCG1uFwXAxoB21
Peroxone: Advanced Oxidation Process
• An AOP combining ozone and hydrogen peroxide.
• Involves ozone dissolution followed by hydrogen peroxide addition.
• Hydrogen peroxide accelerates ozone decomposition, leading to the production of hydroxyl radicals
(HO⋅).
• Reaction: HO−+O3​→HO⋅+O2−​O2−​+O3​→O2​+O3−​O3−​+H+⇌HO3​→HO ⋅ ⋅+O2​(simplified)
• Peroxone and other AOPs are generally as effective or more effective than ozone for pathogen
inactivation.
• Likely used for highly treated effluents (e.g., from microfiltration and reverse osmosis).
Combined Disinfection Processes
• Increased interest in sequential or simultaneous use of multiple disinfectants, especially in water supply.
• Reasons for increased interest:
• Regulatory and consumer pressure for higher levels of pathogen inactivation.
• Higher disinfectant doses lead to increased DBP formation.
• Less reactive disinfectants (e.g., chloramines) reduce DBP formation and control biofilms.
• Sequential application can be more effective than the additive effect of individual disinfectants
(interactive disinfection).
• Application is currently site-specific, depending on treatment technologies.
Properties of Various PAA Formulations
Property Unit 1.0-5% PAA 15% PAA

Weight PAA % 1.0-5 15

Weight Hydrogen
% 0.8-1.5 14-17
Peroxide

Weight Acetic Acid % 9 10

Weight Available
% 0.3-1.1 3.3
Oxygen

Stabilizer Yes/No Yes

Specific Gravity 1.10 1.12

Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Disinfection
• Physical process using UV-C light (200–280 nm)
• Disrupts DNA/RNA, preventing reproduction of microbes
• No chemicals or residues involved
Source of UV Radiation
• Low-pressure mercury vapor lamps (dominant tech)
• Emits UV-C at 254 nm wavelength
• Newer: LED-based UV systems (lower power use)
UV Disinfection System Components
• UV lamp(s), quartz sleeve, ballast, control panel
• Flow-through reactor chamber
• Sensors for intensity monitoring
Germicidal Effectiveness of UV
• Highly effective on bacteria, protozoa, viruses
• Log reduction depends on UV dose and organism type
• E.g., 99.99% virus removal at 40 mJ/cm²
Modeling the UV Disinfection Process
• First-order decay models (Chick-Watson Law)
• Dose = Intensity × Exposure Time
• Simulation tools used for system design
Estimating UV Dose
• UV Dose (mJ/cm²) = UV Intensity × Contact Time
• Affected by flow rate, lamp age, water quality
• Critical for ensuring microbial inactivation
Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines
• EPA and WHO provide standard dose levels
• Minimum: 40 mJ/cm² for most viruses
• Systems must have validation and monitoring
Sizing a UV Disinfection System
• Based on flow rate and UV dose requirements
• Includes safety margins for lamp aging
• Requires hydraulic and microbial analysis
Troubleshooting UV Systems
• Common issues: fouled quartz sleeves, lamp failure, sensor drift
• Regular maintenance and monitoring needed
• Redundancy and alarms improve reliability
Environmental Impacts of UV Disinfection
• No chemical by-products or residuals
• Energy consumption is main concern
• Eco-friendly alternative to chlorination
Comparison of Germicidal Effectiveness
 UV Design, Guidelines, and
Challenges

Guidelines: EPA recommends ≥ 40 mJ/cm²

Design based on flow rate, UVT%, and pathogen target
Challenges: fouling, lamp aging, dose verification
Conclusion
• Multiple disinfection methods tailored to water quality
• Chlorine: Residual & cost-effective
• PAA & Peroxone: Less DBP, high effectiveness
• UV: Chemical-free, effective but no residual
• Combination of methods is common in modern systems
Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide
• Objective: To remove or inactivate pathogenic microorganisms
• Common disinfectants: Chlorine, UV, ozone, chlorine dioxide

What is chlorine dioxide?

• Chemical formula: ClO₂
• Physical state: Yellow-green gas, highly soluble in water
• Disinfectant type: Oxidizing agent (not chlorinating like Cl₂)
• Highly effective even at low concentrations
 How its work?
• Disrupts protein synthesis and cell membranes of pathogens
• Penetrates and breaks down biofilms
• Works through oxidation, not substitution like chlorine

Application
• Disinfection of secondary effluent.
• Disinfection for Reuse .
Conclusion
• Chlorine dioxide is a powerful and efficient disinfectant for
wastewater treatment
• Offers better performance against a wide range of pathogens and fewer
harmful byproducts than traditional chlorine
• Requires careful generation, dosing, and byproduct monitoring
• Suitable for both conventional wastewater and reuse systems.
 Dechlorination
• What is dechlorinaton ? • Why it is needed ?
• Dechlorination is the process of • The reason why it is neccary are as
removing residual chlorine or chlorine following:
compound. 1. Environmental Protection
2. Regulatory Compliance
3. Preventing Harmful Byproducts
Methods of Dechlorination
• There are several methods, but a common and effective one is using sulfur dioxide
(SO₂).
Dechlorination with Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)
Sulfur dioxide acts as a reducing agent, converting chlorine into chloride ions
(Cl⁻), which are harmless in small amounts.
Benefits of Using SO₂:
• Fast reaction
• Inexpensive and readily available
• Leaves no harmful residue
Alternatives to sulfur dioxide
• Sodium bisulfite (NaHSO₃) or Sodium metabisulfite (Na₂S₂O₅)
• Activated carbon filtration
 Design of chlorination and dechlorination facilities

• Designing chlorination and dechlorination facilities for disinfection in

wastewater treatment involves engineering for both effective microbial kill and
safe environmental discharge.

• Chlorination Facility Design (Primary Disinfection )

• Destroy pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses)
• Provide residual chlorine for pipeline protection (optional)
• Achieve regulatory compliance (e.g., <200 CFU/100mL for fecal coliform)
 Design Components
• Chlorine Feed System
• Mixing System
• Contact Chamber
• Instrumentation
 Dechlorination Facility Design
• Remove chlorine residual before discharge
• Prevent aquatic toxicity (chlorine limit <0.02 mg/L in effluent)
• Ensure compliance with EPA/local water quality standards
Design Components
• Dechlorination Agent
• Dosing Equipment
• Mixing Zone
 Disinfection with ozone
What is Ozone?
• Ozone (O₃) is a triatomic molecule made of three oxygen atoms.
• It’s a strong oxidant – more powerful than chlorine.
• Must be generated on-site using ozone generators.

Purpose of Ozonation
• Disinfection (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, cysts)
• Oxidation of organic and inorganic compounds
• Color, odor, and taste removal
• Reduction of COD/BOD and micropollutants (e.g., pharmaceuticals)
Principle of Ozone Disinfection
• Ozone oxidizes the cell walls of microorganisms, causing cell lysis and death.
• It reacts rapidly with many contaminants but decomposes quickly, leaving no harmful
residual.
Advantages of Ozonation
• Very effective disinfectant
• No chemical residues in effluent
• Oxidizes a wide range of organic pollutants
• Improves effluent color and odor
Disadvantages
• High energy cost
• More complex system than chlorination
• No residual – may need secondary barrier
• Material compatibility issues (O₃ is highly reactive)