Artificial Intelligence
(AI)
Lecture No. 5-6
Dr. Maqsood Hayat
Department of Computer Science,
Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan
[email protected] Agenda
Iterative deepening search
Informed Search
Hill Climbing
Beam search
Best First Search
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Iterative deepening search
To avoid the infinite depth problem of DFS,
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only search until depth L,
i.e., we don’t expand nodes beyond depth L.
Depth-Limited Search
• What if solution is deeper than L? Increase L iteratively.
Iterative Deepening Search
• This inherits the memory advantage of Depth-first search
• Better in terms of space complexity than Breadth-first search.
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Iterative deepening search L=0
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Iterative deepening search L=1
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Iterative deepening search L=2
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Iterative Deepening Search L=3
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Heuristics
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Informed Search
The basic idea of a heuristic search is that rather than trying
all possible search paths, you try and focus on paths that seem
to be getting you closer to your goal state using some kind of a
“guide”. Of course, you generally can't be sure that you are
really near your goal state. However, we might be able to use a
good guess for the purpose. Heuristics are used to help us
make that guess. It must be noted that heuristics don’t always
give us the right guess, and hence the correct solutions. In
other words educated guesses are not always correct.
Heuristic Functions
To further improve the quality of the previous methods, we
need to include problem-specific knowledge on the problem.
How to do this in such a way that the
algorithms remain generally applicable ???
HEURISTIC FUNCTIONS:
f: States --> Numbers
f(T) : expresses the quality of the state T
– allow to express problem-specific
knowledge, BUT: can be imported in a
generic way in the algorithms.
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A heuristic function
[dictionary]“A rule of thumb, simplification, or educated
guess that reduces or limits the search for solutions in
domains that are difficult and poorly understood.”
h(n) = estimated cost of the cheapest path from
node n to goal node.
If n is goal then h(n)=0
1 2 3 1 2 3
Start
8 4 7 8 4
7 6 5 6 5
Goal left Right Up
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
7 8 4 7 8 4 7 4
6 5 6 5 6 8 5
h=6 h=4 h=5
Approaches left Right Up
Count correct position 6 4 5
Count incorrect position 2 4 3
Count how far away 2 4 4
Blind search VS Heuristic Search
Only have knowledge about already explored
No Knowledge about far node is from goal state
Estimates distance to goal state
Guides search process toward goal state
Prefer states that lead close to and not away from goal
state
Hill-Climbing Search
Hill-Climbing Search
“is a loop that continuously moves in the direction of
increasing value”
It terminates when a peak is reached.
Hill climbing does not look ahead of the immediate neighbors
of the current state.
Hill-climbing chooses randomly among the set of best
successors, if there is more than one.
What we think hill-climbing
looks like
What we learn hill-climbing is
Usually like
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Hill-Climbing Search
function HILL-CLIMBING( problem) return a state that is a local maximum
input: problem, a problem
local variables: current, a node.
neighbor, a node.
current MAKE-NODE(INITIAL-STATE[problem])
loop do
neighbor a highest valued successor of current
if VALUE [neighbor] ≤ VALUE[current] then return STATE[current]
current neighbor
Example
Drawbacks
Foothill Problem
Drawbacks
Plateau Problem
Drawbacks
Ridge Problem
Beam Search
Out of n possible choices at any level, beam search follows
only the best k of them; k is the parameter which we set
and the procedure considers only those many nodes at each
level.
K=2
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Best First Search
Beam search considers best k nodes at every level, best first search
considers all the open nodes so far and selects the best amongst them.
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