Chapter One
Data Communication Basics
Data Communication and
Computer Networks
1. What is a network?
2. Communications basics
3. Basic communication models
4. Data representation techniques
5. Signal Encoding techniques
6. Multiplexing
7. Data Transmission (Error Detection and Correction)
Communication Basics
Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.
It includes :
Writing and talking
Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body
language or gestures)
Visual communication (the use of images or pictures such as
painting, photography, video or film)
Electronic Communication such as telephone calls, electronic mail,
cable television, satellite broadcasts.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices
2
must be part of a communication system made up of a
Five components of data communication
1. Message: is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks
only Japanese.
3
Serial vs. parallel communications
In serial communications
A single bit will be transferred at a time
using the communication channel
Bits will be reassembled at the destination
Mostly used by computer peripherals like printers,
In parallel communications
Multiple bits (eg. Eight bits) will be
transferred at a time
Needs multiple (parallel) communication channels
4
Contd.
5
Definitions
The word data refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Signal: the electrical wave that is used to represent the
data.
It Can be analog or digital signal
Data communications (Transmission) are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable or wireless media using
appropriate signal.
Network is a system in which a number of independent
computers are linked together to share data and peripherals,
6 such as hard disks and printers (more in the next chapters)
Data Representation Techniques
The type of data to be transmitted can be in the form
of text, audio, and video in the form of electrical
signal, radio, laser, or other radiated energy source.
Data can be analog or digital
The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information that
has discrete states.
7
Analog Signals
Are Continuous wave that carries information by
altering the characteristics of waves.
Analogue means that the original information is
retransmitted to the receiver/listener without any
manipulation.
Here the signal can take on any value (within the
limits set by the recording equipment and the
transmitter).
It measures rather than counts
8
Contd.
Radio, telephone and recording equipment historically
have been analog, but they are beginning to change –due
to large to computers to the other types of signals-
digitals
The disadvantage of analogue signals is that any
'noise', interference, added to the signal at any point
9
cannot be removed from the audio signal and this
Digital Signals
are a discrete series of pulses - either high or low -
on or off - sometimes expressed as binary code 1s
and 0s.
It counts but not measures
Discrete pluses of data transmission rather than
continues wave
More prevalent in computer based devices
10
Flashing light and telegraph message are
Contd.
The advantage of digital signals is that
1. they are much less likely to be degraded by
interference (noise).
2. also it is possible to send a lot more information
digitally
3. They can be transmitted effectively along fiber optic
cables. (on - light signal, off - no light signal)
4. They can be sent directly to computers which use
digital systems themselves.
11
Contd.
The signals from a satellite are digital. They use a
system called 'packet switching' which is the same as
used in computer networks and for the internet. This
system is particularly effective for dealing with noise
12
elimination.
Contd.
Which of the following signals are Analog and which
are Digital?
Volume control on a radio………………..analog
Traffic lights………………………………..digital
Motor bike throttle(accelerator)……………..digital
Water tap…………………………………..analog
Dimmer switch…………………………….digital
Light switch……………………………….digital
In Music on a CD……………………….digital
13
Music on a tape……………………………..analog
Modes of data transmission
There are 3 different transmission modes
characterized according to the direction of the
exchanges:
1. A simplex connection is a connection in which
the data flows in only one direction, from the
transmitter to the receiver.
This type of connection is useful if the data do
14
Contd.
2. A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating
connection or semi-duplex) is a connection in which the data flows
in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time.
With this type of connection, each end of the connection
transmits in turn.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time; the entire
15
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Contd.
3. Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both
stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link: with signals going in the other direction.
This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or
the capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in both
directions.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
16
required all the time.
Contd.
17
Signal Encoding techniques
Digital data:- information that has discrete states
Analog Data:- information that is continuous
Digital Signal:- can have only a limited number of defined values.
Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as
1 and 0.
Analog signal:- has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period
of time.
As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through
and includes an infinite number of values along its path.
18
Signal Encoding techniques reading
assignment
Both analog and digital information can be
encoded as either analog or digital signals.
The particular encoding that is chosen
depends on the specific requirements to be
met and the media and communications
facilities available.
Digital data, digital signal
Analog data, digital signal
Digital data, analog signal
Analog data, analog signal
19
Multiplexing
In data communication, there might be a need to
share a single media for multiple
communication (media/bandwidth sharing) in
order to utilize the available bandwidth wisely to
achieve specific goals.
Sharing of a single media (fiber, coaxial,
microwave,..) is known as multiplexing.
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
20
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of
Contd.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows
the (simultaneous) transmission of multiple
signals across a single data link.
As data and telecommunications use increases,
so does traffic.
In the above figure, there are n inputs to a multiplexer.
21 The multiplexer is connected by a single data link to a
Contd.
The link is able to carry n separate channels of data.
The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from the
n input lines and transmits over a higher capacity
data link.
The de multiplexer accepts the multiplexed data
stream, separates (de multiplexes) the data according
to channel, and delivers them to the appropriate
output lines.
Multiplexing
There are three types of Multiplexing
FREQUENCY- TIME – STISTICAL
DIVISON DIVISON MULTIPLEXIN
MULTIPLEXING MULTIPLEXING G
22
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
FDM is a signal transmission technology in which
multiple signals can simultaneously be
transmitted over the same line or channel.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) can be used in
both wired and wireless networking for transmitting
large amounts of data at high speeds.
FDM is the simplest and oldest form of multiplexing in
wireless networking technology.
23 Frequency division multiplexing involves simultaneously
Contd.
These different frequencies, called channels, share
non-overlapping portions of the total frequency band
being used.
Signals from different data sources are fed into a
multiplexer that modulates each signal and transmits
them at different frequencies.
These signals are then transmitted over the wire or
24 through wireless communication and are separated at
FD Multiplexing Vs. FD Demultiplexing Example
25
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
A multiplexing method for transmitting multiple data
streams in a single communication path.
In TDM, the data from different input channels is
divided into fixed-length segments and then
combined in round-robin fashion into a single output
data stream, which can then be transmitted over a
single channel transmission system and
26 demultiplexed at the destination location.
Contd.
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several
low-rate digital channels into one high-rate one.
One weakness in TDM is that if an input channel does not
have anything important to carry for a time, empty
segments are inserted into the output stream anyway. For
example, if channel A is not transmitting data, one-third of
the output channel is not being used. You can overcome
27
this weakness by using a more sophisticated multiplexing
Contd.
For example, if input streams A, B, and C are divided into
segments as shown here:
A: A1, A2, A3,...
B: B1, B2, B3,...
C: C1, C2, C3,...
the output stream will look like this:
MUX(ABC) A1, B1, C1, A2, B2, C2, A3, B3, C3,...
28
Statistical Multiplexing
It is a multiplexing technique that allows information from a
number of channels to be combined for transmission over a single
channel.
Statistical multiplexing dynamically allocates bandwidth to each
channel on as-needed basis. This is in contrast to time-division
multiplexing (TDM) techniques, in which quiet devices use up a
portion of the multiplexed data stream, filling it with empty packets.
Statistical multiplexing allocates bandwidth only to channels that
are currently transmitting. It packages the data from the active
channels into packets and dynamically feeds them into the output
channel, usually on a FIFO (first in, first out) basis, but it’s also able
to allocate extra bandwidth to specific input channels.
Statistical multiplexing is sometimes referred to as statistical
29
Data Transmission : Error Detection
and Correction
Errors in transmitted data can occur for a variety
of reasons.
1. Some errors are due to equipment failure.
2. Some errors are due dispersion in optical
fibers (i.e. light pulses spread out).
3. Some errors are due to attenuation (loss of
signal power over a line).
4. Most errors are due to thermal noise that occurs
naturally on the line.
30
Dealing with Equipment Failure
The more pieces of equipment that your signal needs to
pass through, the more likely it is that you’ll have a failure.
Transmitter Modem Switch Switch Modem Receiver
Fewer intermediate devices or more reliable devices will
reduce the probability of failure.
Redundant devices can also reduce the probability of
failure by taking over from other devices when they fail.
31
Dispersion
Dispersion mainly occurs in optical fibers.
A light pulse is made of billions of photons.
Each photon follows a slightly different path as it
bounces along the optical fiber.
A crisp light pulse will eventually spread out and
32 overlap with other pulses.
Attenuation
Attenuation is the reduction in the power of a
signal as it is transmitted.
Attenuation is a problem because the signal
eventually loses so much power that it becomes
difficult to distinguish it from the thermal noise
in the background
33
Dealing With Errors
We need to build systems that are resilient to errors in data.
There is no way to guarantee that all bits will be sent
uncorrupted.
One way to cope with this is to detect errors and request
that corrupted data should be retransmitted.
Detecting errors cannot be guaranteed either.
We can at least make it extremely unlikely that errors will go
undetected.
34
Errors in Data
Data is sent in the form of binary numbers.
The binary numbers consist bites - which are either 0 or 1.
There are four possible ways that noise can affect a bit:
If a bit is 0, the noise can affect it so it stays 0 – no error
If a bit is 0, the noise can change it to 1- error
If a bit is 1, the noise can affect it so it stays 1 - no error
if a bit is 1, the noise can change it to 0- error
35
Pure Noise
If the noise is overriding then (with some
surprise perhaps) we will still receive half the
bits correctly.
The problem is that there is no way of telling
which bits are correct and which bits are not.
The data is no better than if we generated the
36
Detecting Errors
Usually, noise levels are fairly low and most of the bits are received
correctly by the receiver.
The question is, how can the receiver know when an error has
occurred?
Because errors occur randomly, there is no way of knowing with
complete certainty if the data is correct.
The best we can do is detect most errors.
We could try sending the data twice and comparing the two transmissions
to see where the errors are.
This is inefficient, particularly if all we want to know if there is an error in a
particular block of data.
Even when we detect an error, the next question is: what to do about
37
it?
Parity Checking (Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC))
One of the most common ways of checking to see if an error
occurs is to count the bits in a character to see if there is an
even or odd number.
Before transmission, an extra bit (parity bit) is appended to
the character to force the number of bits to be even (or odd).
If the received character does not have an even (or odd) number
of bits then an error must have occurred.
Both the sender and receiver must know which form of parity to
use.
38
Contd.
A character such as 0110001 would be
Odd Parity: 01100010
transmitted as: (There are an odd number of 1s)
Even Parity: 01100011 (There are an even number of 1s)
8 bits including parity
7 bits of data
(count of 1 bits)
Even odd
0000000 (0) 00000000 (0) 10000000 (1)
1010001 (3) 11010001 (4) 01010001 (3)
1101001 (4) 01101001 (4) 11101001 (5)
1111111 (7) 11111111 (8) 01111111 (7)
39
example
40
Hamming Distance
The Hamming distance between two bit patterns is the
number of dissimilar bits.
It measures the minimum number of substitutions
required to change one string into the other, or the
number of errors that transformed one string into the
other.
For example, the Hamming distance between
01000001 (‘A’) and 01000011 (‘C’) is 1 because there
is only one dissimilar bit.
41 One error in the wrong place can turn an ‘A’ into a ‘C’.
Hamming Distance
The Hamming distance between 01000001 (‘A’)
and 01000010 (‘B’) is 2 because there are two
dissimilar bits.
It would take two errors in the wrong place to
turn an ‘A’ into a ‘B’.
Adding a parity bit ensures that there is at least
42 a Hamming distance of 2 between any two code
Checksum
Another simple way of checking if there has
been an error in a block of data is to find a
checksum.
Example
43
Contd.
Typically pairs of bytes are joined to make 16 bit numbers. It
is these 16 bit numbers that are totaled to make the
checksum.
If the checksum becomes larger than 65535 (the largest
possible 16 bit number) then the carried bits are discarded.
Checksums are common but not particularly good at
catching errors. Later errors can easily hide earlier ones.
44
!!
y ou
n k
a
Th
d! n?
En t i o
e s
qu
45
