MODULE II

Characteristic lengths in mesoscopic

systems
• Mesoscopic Physics :- Physics of system in
Nanoscale regime.
• Five classification of characteristic lengths in
Mesoscopic Systems.
1. Mean free path
2. Diffusion length
3. De Broglie wavelength
4. Debye Screening length
5. Localization length
 Mean free path (le)
• The mean free path is the average distance
between two collisions
• If ‘ν’ is the speed of the electron and τe is the
relaxation time , then mean free path is given
by
le = ντe
 Diffusion length (Le)
• In modeling of carriers in the MOSFET, we assume
that carriers experience collisions in travelling
between source and drain
• If the channel length L>>le, the transport of carriers is
called diffusion process and can be characterized by
diffusion coefficient D.
• Diffusion length , Le = √(D τe)
• Diffusion length of electron is the average distance
that an electron diffuses before recombining with a
hole
 de –Broglie wavelength (λB)
• de Broglie proposed dual nature of electron
• E = mc2 (Particle behavior) and E =hν (Wave behavior)
• Considering Dual nature; mc2 =hν
=>mc =hν/c
mc = p; the momentum of the particle
• Hence p= hν/c
• For a particle of momentum p = mv where m = mass and v= velocity
of the particle
• λ=h/mv
where m= m0/[1-(ν2/c2)]1/2
• Therefore de Broglie wavelength λB = h/m0c
where ‘m0’ is the mass of the particle in free space
 Debye Screening Length (LD)

•de Broglie wavelength λB = h/m0c

•In extrinsic semiconductors, the impurities are
usually ionized and constitute a main factor
contributing to scattering.
•Because of the screening of free carriers by
charges of the opposite polarity, the effect of the
impurity over the distance is partially reduced.
 𝒓
𝐞 (– )
𝝀𝒔
𝒓
Screening potential is given by ϕsp = γ

Where γ = 1/4𝝅𝜺0 and λs = Debye Screening

wavelength

Debye Screening length LD = ට

𝟐 𝜺𝑲𝑩𝑻
𝒏𝒆𝟐

where 𝜺=> 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎

𝑲𝑩 => 𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒏 => 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
 Localization length (λloc)
• In disordered materials, the electron wave
function is described by

ψ= 𝒆𝒙𝒑
−𝒓
𝛌𝒍𝒐𝒄
• If the sample dimensions are of the order of
λloc, then the system is mesoscopic.
 Quantum Mechanical coherance
• Dynamical behaviour of electron in a system is
contained in the wavefunction ψ.
• ‘ψ’ is obtained by solving Schrodinger’s
equation.
• When an electron interacts with a defect
impurity the phase of the wavefunction
changes.
• ‘ψ’ alone has no Physical significance.
• The quantity Ψψ*dxdydz is proportional to the probability
of finding a particle in the small volume dxdydz about the
point (x,y,z).
• For a wavemotion Ψψ* is a measure of intensity of the
wave.

−∞‫׬‬
𝛙𝛙 𝐝𝐱𝐝𝐲𝐝𝐳 = 1
∗
• If ∞the wavefunction is normalised,

then Ψψ*dxdydz itself gives the probability of the particle

to be seen in the small volume dxdydz about the point at
time ‘t’.
 Conditions on wavefunctions
1. Wavefunction should be finite and it should
vanish at infinity.
2. Wavefunction must be single valued
3. Wavefunction and its derivatives must be
continuous
4. Wavefunction must be square integrable.
All these conditions need not be applied to every
problem
• Some important potentials in nanoelectronic
devices are
1. Infinite square well
2. Finite square well
3. Harmonic potential
4. Triangular potential
5. Periodic potential
• Actual solution of Schrodinger’s equation are
highly involved in these problems and hence
for this we solve particle in one, two and three
dimensions.
 Schrodinger’s equation
• Fundamental expression of quantum
mechanics.
• One dimensional Schrodingers time

𝒅𝟐𝛙 𝟐𝒎
independent wave equation is

𝒅𝒙𝟐
+ 𝟐 (E-V) ψ = 0
ћ
Where ‘ψ’ is the wavefunction
 Particle in one dimensional box
• Consider the motion of a
V=∞ V=∞
particle of mass m, confined to
move between two walls of
infinite height at x=0 and x=a.
• The width of the box is ‘a’.
• Since there is no interaction
between the particle and the
box, potential energy ‘V’ of the X=0 X=a X
particle is zero.
• Schrodingers time independent equation is to
be solved to obtain possible energy values of
the particle and its wavefunctions.
• The problem is one dimensional.
• Schrodinger equation is given by
𝒅𝟐𝛙 𝟐𝒎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝟐
+ (E-V) ψ = 0
ћ
𝒅𝟐𝛙 𝟐𝒎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝟐
+ (E-V) ψ = 0 ----------(1)
ћ

Since the potential energy V=0 for the particle inside

the box,
Expression (1) becomes,
𝑑2ψ 2𝑚
2
𝑑𝑥2
 + Eψ=0
𝑑2ψ
ћ

+𝑘2E ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥2
 ----------(2)
𝑘 =2 2𝑚
2 ----------(3)
ћ

Solution of equation (2) is

Ψ = ASinkx + BSinkx ----------(4)
We apply continuity condition on “ψ”
• Since it is impossible to find the particle outside the box, ψ must
be zero for all points outside the box ie.,
Ψ=0 for x<0
Ψ=0 for x>a
• This is possible only if
Ψ=0 for x=0 ----[Condition 1]
Ψ=0 for x=a ----[Condition 2]
• Applying the condition (1) in equation (4)
0=A Sin0 +B Cos0 =>B=0
• Hence solution to equation (4) becomes
Ψ=A Sinkx ----(5)
• Using again continuity condition (2) at x=a, gives 0=Asinka
• If A=0, the wavefunction itself vanishes throughout the box
=>Sinka =0;
=>ka =nπ ----(6) where ‘n’ is an integer
 𝒏𝝅
𝒂
Now Ψ=A Sinkx becomes Ψ=A Sin x

If n=0,then ψ=0 for all x.

∴‘n’ is a non-zero integer (-n) and (n) correspond to
the same physical state.
𝒌𝟐𝒂𝟐 = 𝒏𝟐𝝅𝟐

=𝒏𝟐𝝅𝟐
𝟐𝒎𝑬𝒂𝟐
ћ𝟐
Using (6)

Taking En as the energy corresponding to n, then

𝒏𝟐𝝅𝟐ћ𝟐
𝟐𝒎𝒂𝟐
En = ----------(8)

Where n=1,2,3,4… is called Quantum number.

Equation (8) shows that energy values are quantized
Therefore first few energy eigen values are
𝝅𝟐ћ𝟐
𝟐𝒎𝒂𝟐
E1 = ; E2 =4E1; E3 = 9E1; E4=16E1,…
  The minimum energy is non-zero. A particle with
zero energy cannot exist in this box.
 The normalized wavefunction is obtained as follows:
𝟎‫׬‬
𝛙𝛙∗𝐝𝐱=
𝒂
 1

𝟎‫׬‬
𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧( )𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧( )𝐝𝐱=
𝒂 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐚 𝐚
1

𝟎‫׬‬
𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐤𝐱𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐤𝐱𝐝𝐱=
𝒂 𝐧𝛑
𝐚
1 ; k=

𝑨𝟐 𝐒
‫׬‬ 𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐱𝐝𝐱=
𝒂 𝟐
𝟎
1

(𝟏
𝟎‫׬‬
− 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐𝐤𝐱)𝐝𝐱= 1
𝑨𝟐 𝒂
𝟐
𝑎
ቂ𝐱− ቃ
𝑨𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐤𝐱
𝟐 𝟐𝐤 0
=1

ቂ𝐚− ቃ= 1
𝑨𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐤𝐚
𝟐 𝟐𝐤

ቂ𝐚− ቃ= 1 ; (ka =nπ & Sin2nπ =0)

𝑨𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐧𝛑
𝟐 𝟐𝐤

= 1 ∴ 𝑨= ට
𝑨𝟐𝒂 𝟐
𝟐 𝒂
=> ; the [normalization constant]
∴ the normalized wavefunctions are

Ψn = ට 𝐒𝐢𝐧( ) where n =1,2,3,…

𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝒂 𝐚

Hence the ground state wave function is

Ψ1 = ට 𝐒𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐 𝛑𝐱
𝒂 𝐚

The wavefunction of the first excited state is

Ψ2 = ට 𝐒𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐 𝟐𝛑𝐱
𝒂 𝐚
Probability Distribution
 For the calculation of probability, we use the
normalized wavefunction.
 Probability of finding the particle between x and
x+dx is

P(x, x+dx) = ට 𝐒𝐢𝐧ቀ ቁ ∗ට 𝐒𝐢𝐧ቀ ቁ 𝐝𝐱

𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝒂 𝐚 𝒂 𝐚
 For the interval (x1, x2)

ට
𝐱𝟏‫𝒂 ׬‬
𝐒𝐢𝐧ቀ ቁ ∗ට 𝐒𝐢𝐧ቀ ቁ 𝐝𝐱
𝐱𝟐 𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐚 𝒂 𝐚
P(x1, x2) =
 Probability density is |ψn(x)|2.
 Therefore the probability of finding the particle
between x and x+dx within the box is
P = |ψn(x)| dx = 𝐒𝐢𝐧 ቀ ቁ dx
𝟐 𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐚 𝐚
2
Wavefunction &Probability distribution

•The probability of finding a

•The wavefunction for a
particle a certain spot in the box is
particle in a box at the n=1 and
determined by squaring Psi.
n=2 energy levels look like this:
•The probability distribution for a
particle in a box at the n=1 and
n=2 energy levels looks like this:
Quantum Wires
Quantum Dot
 Features and DOS
• Energy levels are discrete.
• Energy levels are similar to that of an atom.
• Quantum confinement is observed in three
dimensions.
• The wavefunctions are expressed in terms of
spherical functions.
• DOS is sharply peaked and is given by Dirac Delta
function as
nOD(E) = 2δ(E-E0)
 Dirac Delta Function

DOS

E1 E2 E3 E4

ENERGY
 For more than one quantum state, the DOS is given

nOD(E) = σ𝒏 𝟐𝜹(𝑬− 𝑬𝟎)

by
 The Physics of Low Dimensional Structures

• A quantum well Energy

consists of a thin region
of a narrow gap
semiconductor
sandwitched between
layers of a wide gap Eg2 AlGaAs AlGaAs
semiconductor GaAs
Eg1
• Eg:- A narrow gap GaAs
Z
sandwitched between
widegap AlGaAs

x
• The quantum sized effect is
observed in the direction of
thickness of GaAs because
of its nanometric size.
• Hence the energy level is
quantized in the direction.
• But, the particle behaves
like free particles in the
plane perpendicular to the
interface.
• Here the quantum sized
effect is dominant because
of the small effective mass
of electron in GaAs.
DOS in a two dimensional structure
1. 0<E<E1 : If the energy E lies between 0 and E1, no
energy state is allowed foe electron in the slab.
The DOS is ZERO
2. E1<E<E2: Since the total energy (E) of the particle
is greater than E1, motion is possible in the box.
Electron will be located in the subband
corresponding to energy E1
𝒎∗
𝒆
𝝅ћ𝟐
DOS =
3. E2<E<E3: The electron can be located in subband
corresponding to energy E1 (n=1) and E2 (n=2)
𝒎∗
𝒆 𝒎∗
𝒆
𝝅ћ𝟐 𝝅ћ𝟐
DOS = +
4. E3<E<E4: The electron can occupy three subbsnds
corresponding to E1,E2 and E3.
𝒎∗
𝒆 𝒎∗
𝒆 𝒎∗
𝒆
𝝅ћ𝟐 𝝅ћ𝟐 𝝅ћ𝟐
DOS = + +
 ENERGY

n=4

ENERGY
n=3

n=2
n=1
0 a
DISTANCE DOS 

Fig : Energy levels and corresponding DOS in x-y plane

 1. FINITE SQUARE Quantum Well
• In practice, the potential well is of finite height
V(x)

V0 V0

Region1 Region2 Region3

V=0 V0

The potential can be written as

𝒂
𝟐
V(x) = V0 when |x| >

when |x| ≤
𝒂
𝟐
V(x) = 0
There are three regions characterized by potentials V0,
0 and V0 for the regions 1,2 and 3.
Schrödinger equation for the three regions:
1. Outside the well
(E-V0) 𝝍𝟏 = 0
𝒅𝟐𝛙𝟏 𝟐𝒎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 ћ𝟐
+

(V0-E) 𝝍𝟏 = 0
𝒅𝟐𝛙𝟏 𝟐𝒎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 ћ𝟐
-

- 𝜶𝟐 𝝍𝟏 = 0 where 𝜶𝟐 =
𝒅𝟐𝛙𝟏 𝟐𝒎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 ћ𝟐
(V0-E)

Here the solution must vanish with increasing |x|

and hence the form
𝝍𝟏(x) = C𝒆𝜶𝒙 when x<
−𝒂
𝟐

𝝍𝟏(x) = D𝒆𝜶𝒙 when x>

𝒂
𝟐

2. Inside the well (V = 0)

𝒅𝟐𝛙𝟐 𝟐𝒎
E𝝍𝟐 = 0
𝒅𝒙𝟐 ћ𝟐
+

+ 𝒌𝟐𝝍𝟐 = 0 where 𝒌𝟐 = 𝑬
𝒅𝟐𝛙𝟐 𝟐𝒎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 ћ𝟐

Solutions are of the form

𝜳𝟐(x) = ASinkx + BCoskx when |x| <
𝒂
𝟐
 Features
• The energy of the particle is discrete; electron
can move with certain energies only in the
well if E<Vo.
• The particle is free when E>Vo. The energy of
the particle is continuous.
• The wave function penetrates into clasically
forbidden region and hence the particle shows
tunnelling as shown in fig
• Penetration of electron
wavefunction into the
barriers is small for the
lowest state.
• There is always atleast
one bound state for
particles inside the
well, however small Vo
be.
 2. Parabolic well
• Harmonic motion takes place when a system of some kind
vibrates about an equilibrium configuration.
• The system may be an object supported by a spring or floating in
a liquid, a diatomic molecule or an atom in a crystal lattice.
Condition for harmonic motion:
• The presence of a restoring force that acts to return the system
to equilibrium position when it is disturbed.
• Eg: An SHM; where the restoring force ‘F’ on a particle of mass
‘m’ is linear.
ie., F prop to particles displacement ‘x’ from its equilibrium
position and in opposite direction.
• Thus by Hooke’s law: F = -kx
• Assume the potential profile V(x) = ½ kx2
where k= spring constant
and x = displacement from equilibrium
• This gives rise to harmonic motion
x(t) = A Cosw0t where is w0 = (k/m)1/2
• For the harmonic potential, Schrodinger’s eqn is

• whose solution is

• Where Cn is a constant and Hn are Hermite

polynomials
• Cn is given by
• Hn is given by

•
Parabolic potential profile
 3. Triangular well
• Triangular wells are often used to model the
junction between two materials.
 Assume that the left barrier is infinite in energy
and it increases linearly for z>0, then
V(z) = eFz, for z>0
V(z) =∞ , for z≤ 𝟎
Where e constant = electron charge
f uniform electric field
 The energy states are found by solving
Schrodinger equation subject to boundary
condition ѱ(z=0) =0
 The resulting wavefunctions are expressed in
terms of AIRY functions.
 The energy levels are given by
Triangular potential well
 E n∝ 𝒏
 Thus for a
𝟐

E n∝ 𝒏
o Rectangular well

E n∝ 𝒏
o Parabolic well
𝟐/𝟑
o Triangular well