Limbic System and Hypothalamus

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Limbic System and Introduction Explain the functional anatomy of the limbic system
Hypothalamus
Explain the directions of the signals coming out of the
hypothalamus

Hypothalamus The nuclei of the hypothalamus

Explain the vegetative and endocrine control functions of the

hypothalamus.

Functions of the nuclei of the hypothalamus

Limbic system Explain the role of the limbic system in the regulation of
reward and punishment
Explains reward and punishment centers
Explain the special functions of other parts of the limbic system

Explain the structure and function of the amygdala

Explain the Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Explains the limbic cortex
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• Limbic system refers to all the neuronal circuits that control emotional behavior
and motivational drives

Its important tasks are

• Takes part in the protection of the human species (reproduction)

• It can be considered as the visceral (relating to deep inward feelings rather than
to the intellect.) brain. Because it is less concerned with the external environment.

• Responsible for the internal and emotional aspects of our behavior

• Interprets sensory experience as pleasant or unpleasant

• Provides learning and memory formation which are closely related to emotion

• It is involved in the regulation and formation of sexual behavior, anger, fear,

anxiety, and motivation.
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• The most important part of the limbic system is the hypothalamus. Other important
parts are the amygdala, hippocampus and cingulate gyrus.

• The hypothalamus is responsible for many vegetative (involuntary) functions.

• The hypothalamus, a very small structure, is one of the central elements of the limbic
system.

• The surrounding limbic areas are called the limbic cortex.

• Limbic cortex; establishes a two-way connection between the neocortex and lower
limbic structures

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Cortical part

• Orbitofrontal cortex
• Subcallosal gyrus
• Cingulate gyrus
• Parahippocampal gyrus
• Unkus

Subcortical part

• Hypothalamus
• Paraolfactory field
• Septum area
• Anterior nucleus of the thalamus
• Basal ganglia
• Hippocampus
• Amygdala 5
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Overview of Limbic Circuitry

1) Inputs
- Receives inputs from cerebral cortex and
brainstem
2) Outputs
- Feedback outputs to cerebral cortex.
provides emotional quality to sensory
signals
- Projects to hypothalamus and brainstem.
- Regulates the expression of emotional
behavior

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Hypothalamus

• Hypothalamus; controls endocrine, vegetative and many sensory

behaviors

• Stimulation of some hypothalamic regions leads to excitation, while

stimulation of others leads to inhibition.

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• Despite its small size, the hypothalamus communicates with
all levels of the limbic system.

• The hypothalamus and neighboring structures send their

signals in three (3) directions. These;

1. To the brain stem; mainly to the reticular areas, pons and

medulla and from there to the peripheral nerves of the
autonomic nervous system
2. To the cerebrum and diancephalon; especially to the
anterior thalamus and limbic cortex
3. To the infundibulum of the pituitary (to control the
secretory functions of the anterior and posterior pituitary).

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Posterior hypothalamus (Sympathetic Activity)
• Increased blood pressure
• Pupil dilatation (Mydriasis)
• Chills (increase in body temperature)

Anterior hypothalamus (Parasympathetic Activity)

• Pupillary constriction (Miosis)
• Decrease in body temperature

Dorsomedial nucleus
• Gastrointestinal stimulation

Perifornical nucleus
• Hunger
• Increased blood pressure
• Rage
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Ventromedial nucleus
• Saturation
• Neuroendocrine control

Mamiller body
• Feeding reflex

Paraventricular nucleus
• Oxytocin secretion
• Water retention

Posterior preoptic and anterior hypothalamic area

• Regulation of body temperature
• Breathing
• Sweating
• Thyrotropin inhibition
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Medial hypothalamic area
• Contraction of the urinary bladder
• Decreased heart rate
• Lowering of blood pressure

Supraoptic nucleus
• Vasopressin secretion

Arcuate nucleus and periventricular space

• Neuroendocrine control

Lateral hypothalamic area

• Thirst, hunger and many emotional feelings

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Areas related to specific activities are not
separated by sharp boundaries as shown in
the figure.
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Vegetative and Endocrine Control Tasks of the Hypothalamus
Cardiovascular Regulation

• If the posterior and lateral hypothalamus is stimulated; blood pressure and

heart rate increase
• If the preoptic area is stimulated; blood pressure and heart rate decrease
• These effects are transmitted to the cardio-vascular control centers in the
reticular regions of the pons and medulla.

Regulation of Body Temperature

• The anterior portion of the hypothalamus, particularly the preoptic area, is

associated with body temperature.
• If the temperature of the blood passing through this area is high; the activity
of thermosensitive neurons increases. Otherwise, it decreases
• The anterior hypothalamus responds to heat and the posterior hypothalamus
to cold
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Regulation of body water

Feeling thirsty
• Lateral hypothalamus; is the thirst center and creates a sense of thirst
when the electrolyte density of the extracellular fluid increases.

Control of water discharge

• Supraoptic nucleus; Neurons in this area are stimulated according to the
electrolyte density of the body fluid. The resulting ADH (vasopressin)
secretion is carried by axons extending to the posterior pituitary.

• ADH; is carried along the axon by a carrier protein called neurophysin-2

and is released into the blood from the posterior pituitary via exocytosis.

• ADH increases the reabsorption of water by the kidneys.

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Regulation of uterine contraction and milk discharge from the
breast

• If the paraventricular nuclei are stimulated; cells located here secrete

oxytocin

• Oxytocin, which is carried by a protein called neurophysin-1, is brought to the

posterior pituitary by axonal transport.
a) Increases uterine contractility
b) It provides the contraction of the myoepithelial cells surrounding the
mammary alveoli and allows the milk to be ejected.
c) Plays a role in the onset of labor at the end of pregnancy

• With the baby's sucking, oxytocin secretion begins with the stimuli reaching
the hypothalamus.

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Gastrointestinal system and regulation of nutrition

• Lateral hypothalamic region; hunger center

• Ventromedial nucleus; satiety center

• Mamillary bodies; Controls feeding reflexes such as licking and swallowing

• Glycostat cells sensitive to glucose consumption rate and receptors sensitive to

leptin and other polypeptides are located in the hypothalamus.

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Hypothalamic control of hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary

• Before blood reaches the pituitary, it passes through the hypothalamus

• Axons originating from the periventricular region, arcuate nucleus, and

ventromedial nucleus extend into the median eminence which is the enlarged region
of the pituitary stalk.

• Hypothalamus-pituitary portal system is located there

• Stimulating/inhibiting hormones released into the median eminence region are

transported to the anterior pituitary by the portal system and stimulate the endocrine
cells there, causing the anterior pituitary hormone to be released.

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Hypothalamic control of hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary
• When appropriately stimulated, hypothalamic neurons
secrete activating and inhibiting hormones into primary
capillary plexus

• Hypothalamic hormones travel through the portal veins

to the anterior pituitary where they stimulate or inhibit
release of hormones from the anterior pituitary

• Anterior pituitary hormones are secreted into the

secondary capillary plexus

• Reach to the targeted body part via hypophyseal veins

• Supraoptic and paraventricular neurons release

antidiuretic hormones and oxytocin to the posterior
pituitary gland 19
Behavioral Functions of the Hypothalamus
• If the lateral hypothalamus is stimulated;
• Thirst and hunger
• Anger and fighting behavior occur (reward behavior occurs when
weakly stimulated)
• Stimulation of the ventromedial nucleus and its surroundings;
• Feeling of fullness, decreased eating
• Calmness (opposite of above)
• Stimulation of the periventricular nucleus thin zone (located next to the
third ventricle);
• Fear and punishment evoke the response
• Stimulation of various areas in the anterior and posterior hypothalamus;
• Arouses sexual urge
• In the lesion of these areas, the opposite effects occur.

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Reward and Punishment Function of the Limbic System

• Senses are pleasing or not

• While electrical stimulation of a

certain limbic area creates
satisfaction and pleasure,
stimulation of another area can
cause pain, fear, defense and
escape reaction.

• Stimulation of these two opposing

response systems strongly
influences behavior.

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Reward Centers

• Reward centers; Located in the lateral and ventromedial nuclei of

the hypothalamus

• This area produces reward (pleasure) when weakly stimulated, and

anger when strongly stimulated.

• Secondary reward centers according to the major reward center in the

hypothalamus; found in the septum, amygdala, some areas of the
thalamus, and basal ganglia

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Punishment Centers

• The center that generates the strongest sense of punishment and escape is in the central
gray area surrounding the canal of Sylvius.

• Stimulation of this area; causes symptoms of restlessness such as fear, pain,

punishment

• Less powerful secondary punishment centers are; located in the amygdala and
hippocampus

• Stimulation of the punishment zone creates its effect by completely inhibiting the reward
and pleasure centers.

• This indicates that punishment and fear are more dominant than pleasure and reward.

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 Anger and its Connection with the Punishment Center
• Behavior formed as a result of punishment is anger.

• Behaviors seen in the animal when the punishment center in the brain,
especially the periventricular area and lateral hypothalamus are stimulated;

1. Defensive posture
2. Stretching of the claws
3. Tail lift
4. Hissing
5. Salivation
6. Grumble
7. Piloerection (erection or bristling of hairs), eye opening and pupil dilation

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• A punished animal attacks savagely at the slightest provocation. This is a pattern of
anger behavior.

• The phenomenon of anger is tried to be kept under control with suppressive stimuli
from the ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus.

Calmness and Compliance

• When reward centers are stimulated, calmness and compliance occur.

• Rewards and punishments greatly influence our behavior.

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• Tranquilizers (such as chlorpromazine) inhibit both the reward and
punishment centers. The animal's emotional responses are reduced

• In psychotic states, tranquilizers (sedatives) exert their effects by

suppressing many behavioral areas associated with the hypothalamus and
limbic system.

• Sensory experiences that do not constitute a reward or punishment;

Although the stimulus is repeatedly reapplied, it does not cause nearly any
cortical response. That is, the animal gets used to this stimulus and neglects
it.

• If the stimulus causes punishment or reward; cortical response intensifies

(intensifies) as the stimulus is repeated

• Therefore, an animal; develops a complete habituation to ordinary sensory

stimuli while creating strong memory traces for sensations that cause reward
or punishment 26
 Special Functions of Other Parts of the Limbic System

Hippocampus

• Hippocampus has numerous indirect connections with major limbic regions such as
the cerebral cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, septum, mammillary body, and these
connections are called the "hippocampal formation".

• Any sensory experience activates a small part of the hippocampus.

• Hippocampus sends signals through the fornix to the anterior thalamus,

hypothalamus, and other limbic structures

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Papez Circuit (Emotion)
• The Papez circuit or medial limbic
circuit, was first proposed to be a
neural circuit for the control of
emotional expression.

• It begins and ends with the

hippocampus (or the hippocampal
formation)

• the Papez circuit like many other areas

of the limbic system is involved in
learning and memory, emotion, and
social behavior

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• Stimulation of different areas of the hippocampus like other limbic structures causes
almost all kinds of behavior types such as anger, passivity, and sex drive.

Additional features of hippocampus

• The hippocampus is hyperexcitable, that is, easily stimulated.

• The hippocampus produces epileptic seizures when electrically stimulated.

• During these seizures, hallucinations such as smell, sight, hearing and touch occur.

• This hyper-excitable feature of the hippocampus is the result of that some areas of the
hippocampus cortex are composed of three nerve cell layers, not six layers like other
parts of the brain

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The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning

• Has a role in anterograde learning (remembering events that have happened.)

• In some epilepsy patients, bilateral removal of hippocampus prevented learning of

new information based on verbal input (anterograde amnesia - inability to remember
recent events but intact events prior to trauma)

• They can't even learn the names of the people they are in contact with every day.

• Has a role in retrograde learning.

• Retrograde amnesia in hippocampus lesions is the inability to remember events and
learned information before an illness or injury
• Unremembered information usually includes information from the last year.
• Very old information is remembered

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• A neuronal mechanism has developed in the hippocampus that determines the
importance level of sensory signals and makes critical decisions.

• When a neuronal signal is determined to be crucial, this information is memorized.

• Hippocampus further provides the impulse to convert short-term memory (STP)

to long-term memory (LTP)

• Therefore, the hippocampus ensures that long-term memories, verbal or

symbolic, are permanent.

• Long-term memories, whether verbal or symbolic, cannot be consolidated without

the hippocampus

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• N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors located in the CA1 region of the
hippocampus and the neocortex are essential for LTP

• Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a process involving persistent strengthening of synapses

that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons

• Short-term stimulation of these receptors at high frequency causes a long-term increase

in synaptic activity in neuronal pathways.

• The major neurotransmitter for receptors involved in LTP formation is glutamate.

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Amygdala

• The amygdala is located deep in the temporal lobe

• There are two, one in each cerebral hemisphere

• The amygdala is part of the limbic system in controlling many of our emotions and
motivations, especially those related to survival.

• Amygdala receives signals from the limbic system temporal, parietal, and occipital
cortices, particularly areas of acoustic and visual association.

• Signals in Amygdala are transmitted to the above cortical areas, hippocampus, septum,
thalamus, especially the hypothalamus

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Functions of the amygdala

• Stimulation of amygdala causes fear and anxiety

• Responsible for the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional
events.

• As a result sympathetic activity increases (norepinephrine); thereby increasing the

heart rate and metabolic rate, dilating the pupil and an increase in blood flow to the
muscles

• This activity is coordinated by the amygdala and allows us to respond appropriately to

danger.

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• When faced with a threatening situation, the thalamus, receiving the incoming
stimuli, sends signals to both the amygdala and the cortex.

• If the amygdala senses danger, it increases sympathetic activity (via the

hypothalamus) even before the cortex is engaged.

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If the amygdala is stimulated, effects occur in two (2) ways. These;
1) Effects mediated by the hypothalamus

• Increase or decrease in arterial pressure

• Increase or decrease in heart rate

• Increase or decrease in GIS (Gastrointestinal system) motility and secretion

• Defecation (discharge feces from the bowels) and micturition (the action of urinating)

• Pupillary enlargement or rarely narrowing

• Pyloerection (erection or bristling of hairs)

• Secretion of anterior-pituitary hormones (gonadotropins and ACTH)

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2) Effects not mediated by the hypothalamus

• Tonic movements such as raising the head, bending the body

• Rotational movements

• Clonic, rhythmic movements

• Smell, eating, licking, chewing and swallowing movements

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Klüver Bucy Syndrome

Occurs with bilateral removal or damage to the amygdala

• Extreme fearlessness

• Extreme curiosity

• Don't forget quickly

• Increased propensity to mouth to objects (even hard objects)

• Excessive sexual urge

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Limbic Cortex

• Ring of cerebral cortex that surrounds

subcortical limbic structures

• The limbic cortex, which transmits a

bidirectional signal between the cortex
and the limbic system, functions as an
association area that controls behavior.

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Of the limbic cortex;

• Taste and smell associations in the anterior temporal cortex

• Sensorimotor associations in the middle and posterior cingular cortex

• Auditory associations in the parahippocampus gyrus

• In the posterior temporal lobe, associations related to thoughts stored in

the Wernicke center are also stored.

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• When the anterior temporal cortex is removed bilaterally, the amygdala is also
damaged and Klüver Bucy syndrome occurs.

• If the posterior orbitofrontal cortex is removed; not sleeping, constant wandering

and hyperactivity are seen

• Removal of anterior cingulate and subcortical gyrus; grumbling and rage episodes
are passed

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