FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COMMUNICATION ENGINEEERING FUNDAMENTALS

( ECM412)

CHAPTER 2
FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

LESSON 1

1 By: Hasnida Bt Saad

INTRODUCTION TO FM
Definition – FM is a modulation technique in which the frequency of a carrier is
varied directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal while the
amplitude of the carrier signal is kept constant

Low
frequency
Modulating
signal

FM
modulator
When the information signal and the carrier
signal are fed into the FM modulator, the FM
High modulated signal (green waveform) produced
frequency has a constant amplitude but its frequency has
carrier changed. The rate of change of the frequency is
signal proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
2 signal (red line).
AM-FM Waveforms
• FM modulation conveys
information over a carrier
wave by varying its
instantaneous frequency
while its amplitude remains
unchanged)

• Contrast with AM
modulation, in which the
amplitude of the carrier is
varied while its frequency
remains constant.

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 Sketching the FM waveform,

Carrier

Information

1 2
min to max Vm max to min Vmfmin
fma fc
x
FM

Carrier frequency
changes at a rate equal
to the amplitude of the
modulating signal Δf
Carrier swing
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min to max freqmax to min freq
  Frequency deviation, Δf is the maximum change of the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the
centre frequency, fc. It is proportional to the amplitude
of the modulating signal, V m.

 The highest frequency of FM signal: fmax=fc + Δf

 The lowest frequency of FM signal: fmin=fc - Δf

 So, the total change of FM frequency is called carrier

swing.
Carrier swing, fsc = fmax-fmin
= (fc + Δf)-(fc – Δf)
= 2Δf

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4 important features of FM waveforms:

i) The frequency of FM wave varies.

ii) The amount of carrier frequency changes is proportional

to the amplitude of the modulating/information signal.

iii) The amplitude is constant.

iv) The rate of change of carrier frequency is the same as

the frequency of the modulating/information signal.

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Derivation of FM signal
Let the instantaneous signal for,

𝑚 ሺ 𝑡ሻ = 𝑉
modulating signal , 𝑉 𝑚 cos𝜔𝑚 𝑡 (1)

Carrier signal , 𝑐ሺ 𝑡ሻ = 𝑉
𝑉 𝑐 cos𝜔𝑐 𝑡 (2) where c >>m

In FM, carrier frequency changes with the change of the amplitude of the
modulating signal, so the angular frequency and the instantenous frequency of
the FM wave are given as in (3) & (4) :

𝑚ሺ 𝑡ሻ ,
 = c + 𝑘𝑉 where 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜔 = 𝜔𝑐 + 𝑘𝑉
𝑚 cos𝜔𝑚 (𝑡).....(3)

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚(𝑡).......(4)
𝑉𝑚
2𝜋
Or

= 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)
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 Where ∆𝑓 =
𝑘𝑉𝑚
2𝜋

Or ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓𝑉
𝑚 ……(5)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦,𝐻𝑧/𝑉

𝑘𝑓 =
𝑘
2𝜋
&

Deviation sensitivity or frequency deviation constant is the amount

of frequency change in the carrier frequency per unit amplitude
change in the message signal

The general equation of the FM is ; FM (t) = Vc cos  ……….(6)

The angle () of the FM signal ; 𝜃 = ‫(…… 𝑡𝑑 𝜔 ׬‬7)

Substituting (3) into (7):

𝑘𝑉
= 𝜔𝑐𝑡 + sin𝜔𝑚𝑡 + ∅ ……(8)
𝑚

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𝜔𝑚
 Assuming  = 0, and substitutes (8) into (6):

FM (t)= 𝑉
𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑐𝑡 + sin𝜔𝑚𝑡) ……(9)
𝑘𝑉𝑚
𝜔𝑚

OR

FM (t)= 𝑉
𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑐𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin𝜔𝑚 𝑡) ……(10)

𝑎𝑠 𝑓 = − − − −→ 𝑚𝑓 =
𝑘𝑉𝑚 ∆𝑓
2 𝑓𝑚
.......(11)

Range of modulation index, 0  mf  

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 Frequency Deviation (f )
• Frequency deviation f represents the maximum change of the instantaneous
frequency of the FM signal from the carrier frequency, fc

• f is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal Vm and it is independent

of the modulating frequency.
The maximum frequency for FM wave ; fmax = fc + f ……….(12)

The minimum frequency for FM wave ; fmin = fc - f ……….(13)

The total change of the frequency from minimum to maximum frequency is

called carrier swing, fcs where

fcs = fmax - fmin

= (fc + f ) – (fc - f)

fcs = 2 f ………..(14)
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 Example 1
Determine the frequency deviation (f) and modulation
index (mf) for an FM modulator with a deviation
sensitivity, kf of 5 kHz/V and a modulating signal,
𝑚 ሺ 𝑡ሻ = 2cos(4𝑘𝜋𝑡)
𝑉

Solution

f = kfVm (Hz) = 5 kHz/V x 2V =10 kHz.

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 Example 2
FM broadcast station is allowed to have a frequency
deviation of 75kHz. If a 4kHz (highest voice frequency)
audio signal causes full deviation ( that is at maximum
amplitude of information signal), calculate the modulation
index.

Solution
∆𝑓 75𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥,𝑚𝑓 = = = 18.75
𝑓𝑚 4𝑘𝐻𝑧

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 FM Frequency Spectrum
• FM has infinite number of frequency spectrum. This is because in a frequency or
phase modulator, a single-frequency modulating signal produces an infinite number
of pairs of side frequencies.
•Therefore it has an infinite bandwidth.
• However, most of the side frequency are very small in amplitude and can be
ignored.

As obtained in equation (10), the FM modulated signal is given as:

𝑉𝐹𝑀ሺ 𝑡ሻ = 𝑉
𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin𝜔𝑚 𝑡)

Further expend using trigonometric

cos (A+B) = cos A cos B –sin A sin B
identity of :
Vfm(t)= Vc [cos ct cos (mfsinmt) - sinct sin(mfsinmt) ]

The terms cos (mfsinmt) and sin(mfsinmt) can be

expended further as a trigonometric fourier series.
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By using Bessel functions of the first kind of nth order, the FM mathematical expression
becomes as eq (15),
= Vc { cos ct [Jo + J2 cos2mt + J4 cos4mt + J6 …… ]

– sin ct [J1 sinmt + J3 sin3mt + J5 ……] }

= Vc {Jo cos ct + J1[ cos(c + m)t - cos(c - m)t ] +

J2[ cos(c + 2m)t + cos(c -2 m)t ] +

J3[ cos(c + 3m)t - cos(c - 3m)t ] +

J4[ cos(c +4 m)t + cos(c - 4m)t ] +

Jn [cos(c +nm)t + cos(c - nm)t …………..(15)

From equation (15), it shows that the FM waveform has a component at the carrier
frequency and unlimited series of frequency, above and below the carrier frequency.
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 From eq (15)

Jo = amplitude of the carrier

J1 = first set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by m
J2 = second set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by 2m
J3 = third set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by 3m
J4 = fourth set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by 4m
Jn = nth set of side frequencies displaced from the carrier by nm

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Bessel Function Table for several values of modulation index.

If mf=1, number of sideband ,n = 3 pairs

Jo = relative amplitude of the carrier component

J1 - J14= relative amplitude of the sideband components
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 From the Bessel function Table:
i. mf=0, produces zero side frequency.
ii. The larger the mf, the more sets of side frequencies
produced.
iii. The value shown for Jn are relative to the amplitude of
the unmodulated carrier. Eg: J2=0.35 indicates that the
amplitude of the second side freq is equal to 35% of the
unmodulated carrier amplitude (0.35 Vc).
iv. A side freq is not considered significant unless it has an
amplitude equal to or greater than 1% of the
unmodulated carrier amplitude , Jn  0.01.
v. Relative amplitude for the sideband = Jn (unitless)
vi. Actual amplitude for the sideband = Jn x Vc (volt)
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FM Frequency Spectrum

If you applied modulus

on the amplitude, Jn ,
there will be no sideband
with negative amplitude

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Bandwidth Requirement for FM signal

• FM signal contains an infinite number of side frequency, so theoretically,

the bandwidth which require to transmit the FM signal is infinity.

• But in practical, significant sidebands are limited, depending on the value

of mf. A side freq is not considered significant unless it has an amplitude
equal to or greater than 1% of the unmodulated carrier amplitude , Jn 
0.01.
Two different methods can be used to calculate the FM bandwidth

(i) Using Bessel function table

Bandwidth = 2 x number of pairs of sidebands x audio signal frequency

BWFM = 2nfm …….(16)

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 (ii) Using Carson’s Rule

• The alternative way to estimate the bandwidth of an FM signal.

• The minimum bandwidth is twice the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the
highest modulating frequency

BWFM = 2 [f + fm(max)] ……..(15)

This rule is accurate under 2 conditions:

1) For modulation index (mf > 4)

2) Relative amplitudes of sidebands , Jn ≥ 2% or Jn ≥ 0.02

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 Example
3
For an FM modulator with a modulation index mf =1, a modulating signal
m(t)=Vm sin (21000t) and unmodulated carrier c(t)=10 sin(2500kt),
determine:
a) number of sets of significant side frequencies.
b) their actual amplitudes
c) Draw the frequency spectrum showing their actual
amplitudes.

Solution:
a) From Bessel function table, for mf=1 produced a carrier
component and 3 sets of significant side frequencies.
b) Their actual amplitudes:
J0= 0.77 (10) = 7.7 V
J1= 0.44 (10) = 4.4 V
J2= 0.11 (10) = 1.1 V
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J3= 0.02 (10) = 0.2 V
c) Frequency spectrum

7.7V

4.4V 4.4V

1.1V 1.1V

0.2V 0.2V

f(Hz
497 498 499 500 501 502 504 )

Frequency spectrum

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 Example
4
 For an FM modulator with a peak frequency deviation
f = 20kHz, a modulating-signal frequency f m=10 kHz,
Vc =15V, and a 500 kHz carrier, determine:
a) actual minimum bandwidth from Bessel function table.
b) approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s rule,
c) Plot the output frequency spectrum for the Bessel
approximation.

Solution:
a) mf = f / fm = 20 kHz / 10 kHz = 2,
then: refer Bessel function table, m= 2  n=4.
B = 2 (n ×fm) = 2(4 × 10kHz) =80 kHz.
b) Carson’s rule: B = 2(f + fm ) = 2(20 kHz + 10 kHz)
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=60 kHz.
 (c) Plot frequency spectrum

8.7V 8.7V
5.25V 5.25V

3.3V
1.95V 1.95V

0.45V 0.45V
f(Hz)
460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540

Frequency spectrum

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 Summary
At the end of this lesson 1, students should be able to :
1. understand the concept of frequency modulation
(FM) technique.
2. sketch the FM waveform.
3. write general FM mathematical equation
4. determine frequency deviation and the frequency
swing of the FM signal.
5. understand the information given in Bessel
Function Table.
6. sketch the FM frequency spectrum.
7. calculate the bandwidth of FM spectrum.

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