Mechanical Properties- Physical Properties-

Ductility: The quality of being pliable Fusibility: How easy a material will melt with heat to
and flexible and drawn out under be converted from a solid to a liquid or molten
tension without cracking. (stretching state. (metals, plastic and glass can be classified as
a material into a wire) being fusible)

The difference between Hardness Thermal Expansion: When a material increase in

and Toughness is that Hardness length, area, or volume, changing its size and
tests how resistant the surface of a density, in response to an increase in temperature.
Remove all possible variables when material is whereas Toughness test (During Winter when gutter pipes makes sounds as
testing such as: how much impact a material can they react to the change in temperature, and this
Size of material take internally. Toughness
results in the pipes Testing:​
being deformed over time .
Plasticity: Ability to be permanently deformed and retain the
Environmental changes
deformed
Method, position and amount 1.1 Materials and their
shape.
of force
How much impact force a material
can absorb
Applications:
application
Testing equipment and Individual
- Tough material would absorb the
taking measurements Malleability and Ductility impact, whereas brittle material
Testing: may bend or shatter.
Practical Workshop test-
Tensile Testing: - To try and bend it to 90
To resist stretching or degrees.
pulling forces. - Any damages on the outside
- Clamp material to of the bend indicates lack of
the same length and ductility.
thickness into the vice - Any damages on the inside
and apply load to the of the bend indicates lack of
unclamped end. malleability.
- The less deflection
under the load, the
more tensile strength
Hardness Testing: Conductivity Testing:
There are two aspects of hardness: Abrasive wear There are two types of testing: Electrical and
and resistance to surface indentation. Thermal.
Electrical:
- When testing abrasive wear , run a file over the - Can be tested using a
surface of the material using the same force for Multimeter
each sample. - Material samples will have
- The material with the fewest scratches is the each probe from the
hardest. multimeter attached to each
end.
- Same force from the same angle is used for - Keep the distance constant
Industrial Testing-
each sample. and measure resistance.
Tensile Testing:
- The smaller the indent the harder the material. - The higher the resistance
- Place material into a tensometer
the lower the conductivity.
Thermal:
machine and held into clamps at
each end. - Tested using a thermometer.
- One clamp is fixed while the other - Materials of the same dimension have a
moves on a work drive gear thermometer on one end and a lit Bunsen burner
mechanism. on the other.
- As worm drive travels at a - Keep distance between them constant and
constant rate, the test piece is put measure the time taken for the temperature to
under tension. reach set target.
- When it's stretched, the load and - The longer it takes the lower the thermal
distance travelled is plotted, giving conductivity is.
information on elastic limit, yield
point, maximum load and breaking
point.
Toughness Testing- Brinell Test:
- Notched test piece held vertically in vice of test - Hardened standard sized steel ball is
machine. forced into material surface using pre-set
Pendulum is released from a set position and swings to load.
strike test piece. - Diameter of ident in the surface is
- Material that absorbs the most impact is the measured.
toughest. - Smaller the ident, harder the material.
- This is shown by the distance the pendulum swings
after breaking the material.
- Further it swings, the less energy the sample absorbs
Hardness Testing-
and the more brittle the material is.
Rockwell Test:
- Preload applied to material sample using
diamond indenter which breaks through surface of
material.
- Preload the datum or zero reference position.
- Additional load is applied to test material and
held for a predetermined length of time (dwell Ductility and Malleability
time). Test-
- Bend test determines how well
- Load is then released and distance between the a material can withstand
preload and the applied load is measured and the cracking during one continuous
hardness of the material is calculated. bend.
- Test piece is placed into bending machine and
-Vickers Pyramid
Small the Test: depth, harder the material.
indentation
- For very hard materials. supported at the ends.
- Test uses a diamond square-based pyramid to indent surface of - A mandrel/plunder loads the test piece at the center
material. and bends it to a predetermined angle or until the test
- Diamond used as it would not deform under load. piece fractures.
- A microscope is used to measure the size of the indent. - Material is inspected for cracks or defects.
- Smaller the indent, the harder the material. - Cracks on the exterior show levels of ductility.
- Cracks on the interior show levels of malleability.
Non-Destructive Testing- Thermal Conductivity:
On product like large castings - Square-shaped material test piece is placed between two
where there is a likelihood of temperature-controlled plates using a heat flow meter.
internal defect or - At a controlled rate temperature is increased and heat flown
imperfections that could not through material is measured by heat flow sensors placed on
be detected by other surface of material.
methods. - As it's set to a set temperature, the sensors measure and
Ultrasonic: Electrical Conductivity:
record rate of thermal conductivity.
- Performed on all types of materials with high - 4 Point probe used to determine electrical conductivity of materials.
accuracy. - 4 small-diameter wires are stretched, parallel to each other across a
- Equipment can be portable non-conductive polymer block, held in place and connected to copper
- Transducer generates sound waves that are pulsed terminal block.
into the material and the intensity of the reflected - 2 leads attached to inner and outer wires.
sound waves signal is recorded on a display unit. - Outer leads connected to precise current and the 2Smart
innerMaterials-
leads
- Sound waves travel through material and if there's measure voltage drop. - Material
defects like cracks in the sound wave path, sound - Ohms law, V=IR to be used to calculate resistant. physical
Polymers-
energy will partially reflect and show on the display properties
Thermoplastic:
time unit. change in
X-Ray Testing: - Material that can be repeatedly reheated and reshaped, making it recyclable.
- Used in Offshore and Aerospace industries. response to an
- Ray beam passes through the Thermosetting polymer:
material and an image is projected - When heated, the material undergoes chemical changes where molecules input inform rigid
onto a display screen. cross links so they can't be reheated or reshaped. environment.
- X-Rays and micro-focus x-rays Elastomer:
allow observation of tiny details - Material at which at room temperature can be deformed under pressure and when
within material. pressure is released, it returns to its original shape due to weak bonds.
- Magnified image enables minute
Composites- Modern Materials- Paper and Boards-
flaws like voids and hairline cracks
- Material comprised of - Developed through invention - Compliant material that can be
reliably.
2 or more different of new/improved processes scored, folded and cut with basic
- Used in Intergrated Circuits and
material giving it an such as man-made materials or tooling to form items like nets for
Printed Circuit Boards as well as
enhanced property. human intervention. packaging.
Wood- Before using wood, it's converted by being Air Seasoning:
- Natural materials have grown all sawn into useable pieces and seasoned by - Traditional and inexpensive but time
over the world and has been used removing excess moisture. consuming.
in building work, furniture, and - Kiln and air seasoning are two forms of - Stacking wood under a shelter
decorative items for many years. seasoning. protected from rain.
- Wood fibers grown along length - Air circulates between planks to slowly
of tree or branch and these fibers remove excess moisture.
consist of hallow cells (tracheid's) - Air-seasoned wood used for outdoor
supported by lignin resin. wooden product as it's seasoned to same
- Timber strong in direction of the moisture content of its surroundings,
1.2 Performance Characteristics of
grain (along) and weaker across. therefore making it less prone to defects.
Kiln Drying Proc
Seasoning- Materials: Kiln Seasoning:
ess
Unseasoned wood in heated room twits, warps and cups or bows when drying out and - More expensive but quicker.
cracks or gaps may appear. - Planks stack onto trolleys and
- When ordering wood the correct type must be selected: Oak-Air Dried (A-D) or Oak- placed in kiln where both humidity
Kiln Dried (K-D). and temperature are controlled.
- Wood expands and shrinks in response to humidity changes due to its natural source. - Kiln atmosphere is very steamy but
- To reduce time it takes to season, trees should be felled in winter when they grow gradually changes to become hotter
less, have less sap and contain less moisture. and drier.
- Largest amount of shrinkage occurs after a tree is cut and while it's been seasoned. - Indoor products use kiln-seasoned
- Almost no shrinkage in direction of grains, some shrinkage happens perpendicular to wood as it's been seasoned to meet
growth rings and most occur along the curvature of the growth rings. indoor condition.
- End of the woods tend to lose moisture content quicker than the core and sometime Seasoning wood gives:
results in cracks at the ends of plank. - Greater immunity form decay
- Care to be taken when seasoning so that wood shrinks uniformly, usually once wood and increased resistance to
been fully seasoned, and end cracks will close as the plank is now in equilibrium rotting
throughout, - Increased strength and stability
- Seasoned wood can be susceptible to shrinkage due to seasonal changes in ambient - Helps preservatives to penetrate
Types of
Woods-

Veneer Proces
s
Stock Forms (Woods)- Toxicity of Woods:
- Available in standard stock sizes to keep material costs down. - Dust from woods as well as sap can be a hazard and a
form health risk to workers manufacturing with wood as
Rough Sawn: well as those around.
- Directly from seasoning and has rough surfaces produced from - Toxicity of woods depends on the species, so it's
initial conservation. important that designers and manufactures are aware of
- Nominal size (32mm or 50mm thick) rather than accurate finisheddifferent risks posed by different species.
sizes. - Under COSHH (Control of Substance Hazardous to Health)
regulations 2002, both hardwood and softwood dusts have
Planned Square Edge (PSE): workplace exposure limits (WELs) of 5mg per cubic meter.
- Has only one edge that is planed accurately. - Both hardwood and softwood dust can cause respiratory
- Rest are rough sawn. irritation, as hardwood dusts is listed in COSHH as
- Planning removes 3mm smaller all around than original rough sawn carcinogenic.
nominal size. - Employers should ensure that there is adequate personal
protective equipment (PPE), extraction and ventilation
Manufactured Boards:
systems in place and exposure levels for worker are
- Available in long, wide boards of uniform thickness and
Planed all Round (PAR): reduced so the WEL does not increase.
quality.
- All sides and edges are planed square, straight and level leaving a
- Very stable, also affected by temp and humidity as
smooth finish making it ready to use.
much as solid wood.
- PAR board is 3mm smaller all round than original rough sawn
- Uniform strength across the board, no grain problems.
nominal size.
- Difficult to split and available in flexible thin sheet
form.
Natural Wood:
- Less expensive than solid wood of a similar tree.
- Available at max width of tree. Mouldings:
- Veneers can be applied to the surface for enhanced
- When producing wide desktops, they need to be joined together. - Some woods are made into mouldings like
aesthetics.
- But manufactured boards can be produced from one sheet without skirting boards or wooden trins and are readily
a joining process. available in standard lengths up to roughly 4
- When joining planks together, end grains must go in opposite meters.
directions to each other. - Uses Milling Machine.
- This makes sure that internal forces of wood do not pull the wood in
Polymer-based sheet and film -
- Polymer material produced and sourced in sheet form in
different thickness for purposes like model making and
packaging.
- When it comes to sustainability, they have different
features:
. Cellulose acetate comes from natural source making it
biodegradable.
Name: Characteristics: Uses:
. Fluted polypropylene can be recycled
.Foam
Foamboard Two
board is more difficult to out layers
recycle ofmostly
so it's card with middle foam core
reused Mood board backing and presentation
instead. with different thicknesses. boards.
Fluted PP sheet Extruded sheets with integral "flutes" or "For Sale" signs, portfolio cases and storage
corrugations. Lightweight and easily bent box constructions.
along the flutes.
Translucent PP sheet Extremely tough polymer sheet. Scored Packaging products, folders and boxes.
before bending to produce plastic hinge. This
can make it fold many times. Impossible to
tear and water resistant.
Styrofoam Dense and closed cell foam. Can be cut, Product modelling and former for moulding
shaped and sanded with standard workshop and lamination.
tools.
Low density polyethylene Tough, available in thin sheet form, Air pillow packaging, bubble wraps and
(LDPE) transparent, chemical resistant and flexible. carrier bags.

Plastazote foam Closed cell polyethylene foam, tough, flexible, Swimming floats, gym and exercise mats
impact resistance and impermeable to liquids. and sound and pipe insulation.

Cellulose acetate Transparent, tough and naturally Packaging film and photographic film.
biodegradable.
Paper and Boards- Stock Forms (Papers)-​
- Can be cut, scored and folded to produce items like - Available from sizes A0 (biggest) - A8 (Smallest).​
packaging making them compliant materials. - Each half the size of the previous one.​
- Original source of paper is pulp. - Paper thickness is measured in grams per unit
- Bleach is added to transform grey pulp into whiter paper square (gsm).​
during manufacturing. - Standard photocopying paper is 80gsm​
- Natural source makes paper and boards biodegradable and - Mount board is 1000gsm.
recyclable.
Name: Characteristics: Uses: - A4 Paper Size: 21cm x 29.7cm

Layout paper Thin translucent paper with Sketching, quick

smooth surface. ink, technical
drawing, tracing.
Cartridge paper Off-white paper with slightly Rendering in
textured surface. pencil, ink and
pastel. Can be
used for printing.
Tracing paper Translucent paper slightly thicker Coping images
than Layout paper. when sketching.

Bleed-proof Similar to Cartridge paper but Spirit-based

paper has bleed-proof layer on one side. marker rendering.

Treated paper Plain paper with clear binder or Photographic

dye layer applied to help hold printing.
image on paper surface and
brighten image. Surface sheens
like high gloss or matt available.
Watercolor Absorbent, smooth, hot-pressed or Watercolor
paper the more textured cold-pressed painting.
Name: Characteristics: Uses:

Corrugated card Carton board outer layers and a Protective

corrugated middle layer, giving the packaging, model
material the ability to provide making and take-
protection against impact. away boxes.
Bleached card Chemically treated to brighten Greeting cards,
surface to make it suitable for high- high-quality
quality printing. packaging.
Mount board Compressed fine cotton fibers to Presenting artwork,
produce a rigid board. picture mounting
and modelling.
Duplex card Made of two layers of paper, with Food packaging like
exterior coated to make it more juice or milk cartons
water-resistant and to give it a glossy and take-away box
sheen and waxy feel. lids.
Foil backed and Card with Polymer film or foil applied Drink packaging,
Laminated Card to either one sides or both to provide milk cartons and
a water resistant/heating insulating take away box lids.
layer. The foil or laminated layer must
be removed before recycling the
paper pulp.
Metal effect card High-quality card with thin metal Gift boxes,
effect layer applied to outer surface packaging high-
for enhanced aesthetics and can be quality metal effect
embossed. business cards.
Moulded paper Recycled paper pulp moulded when Egg boxes.
pulp wet and dried to specific shape.
Types of
Metals:

Metals:
- Natural material mined from the ground in
the form of ore.
- Roughly 25% of the Earth's crust is made
of metal ores.
- Bauxite most common ore, then Iron.
- Raw material extracted from the ore
through combination of crushing, smelting
or heating with addition of chemicals and
huge amount of electrical energy.
- Most can be recycled, saving natural
resources and limiting amounts of materials
imported from abroad.
Stock Forms (Metals)- Fraction Distillation:
Sheet: - Polymers are made from the fractional distillation of crude
Large flat sections of metals - It produces mixture of hydrocarbons.
varying in thickness from less - Fraction called naphtha is the main distillation used in the
than 1-3mm. production of polymers.
- Hydrocarbons go through an additional process known as
Plate: cracking. This breaks down the larger hydrocarbon into
Thicker than sheets as it's smaller ones.
thicker than 3mm and - Polymers are made either through polymerization or
narrower than a sheet. polycondensation process which means that polymers are
linked together from long chain of monomers.
- There are bio-based polymers which are designed to
Bar:
have a much shorter degradation time than synthetic
Metal in solid form.
polymers made from crude oil.
- Synthetic polymers take hundreds of years to degrade
Tube:
but with bio-based polymers it can take as little time as a
Hollow within the center.
few months to a couple of years.
- Polymers described as "self-finishing" as they can be
Structural:
pigmented during manufacture process, to give color and
Angular shaped beams. (H
therefore require no additional secondary finishing
beams, I beams, Tee beams,
process.
Channel beams, Angle beams)
- When processing polymers, safe working temperature
should be noted to ensure that properties of polymer do
Polymer- not degrade.
3 types of Polymers: - Polymers can be damaged by UV light unless it's
- Thermoplastics enhanced during processing, the polymer will
- Thermosetting polymers disintegrate if exposed to sunlight for extended periods of
- Elastomers time.
- Due to differences in molecular make up, some are
more resistant to UV than others.
Thermoplastics:
Elastomers: Thermosetting
- Can be stretched multiple times and return Plastics:
to their original shape when tension has been
removed.
- Also, self-finishing with pigments for color
added during manufacture process.
- Mostly used for "elastic" products like
wristbands.
- Some are used as overmouldings to provide
improved grip and textures on products like
toothbrushes, handheld electric drills and
razors.
- Are non-toxic to user, making it ideal for
gripped surfaces touched by skin.
Biodegradable
Polymers:
- Most polymers are produced from finite, non-renewable resources
like crude oil which does not break down easily or quickly.
- Discarded polymer like ones found in household waste are a major
cause of pollution and can kill marine and bird life as well as cause
environmental scarring due to landfill.
- Polymers can be produced from natural and renewable resources
such as wood cellulose, vegetable oil, sugar and starch and this can
save finite resources.
- Bio-polymers are biodegradable polymers can be used for shopping
bags, food trays, disposable cutlery, plate, drinks bottle, gloves,
gloves, nappies, plant pots and medical sutures such as dissolving
stitches.
Biodegradation occurs when the
polymer undergoes significant change in
properties due to the influence of
chemicals like heat or light.

There are 2 main categories for Bio-polymer: Natural and Synthetic-

Natural Bio-polymers:
- Made from natural materials such as cellulose starch and polysaccharides.

Synthetic Bio-polymers:
From renewable resources but chemically engineered (synthesized) to break
down much faster.
- Corn kernels can be milled to extract dextrose from their starch. Dextrose is
fermented into lactic acid and the lactic acid is then chemically processed to
produce polylactic acid (PLA).
There are 2 main descriptions for biodegradable Photodegradable Polymer:
polymers: - Polymer bonds are weakened, and the polymer breaks
down from exposures to UV light like UV rays from sunlight.
Type 1- - Are often used in the agriculture industry where the
- Polymer made from finite resources like crude oil. grounds is covered by the polymer sheet, weed growth halts
- Polymer contain additives that cause it to degrade and this decreases the need for herbicides.
more quickly than traditional polymers. - Sheet also helps hold water in the ground sand and extends
- Degradation occurs in presence of light (photo the growing season by insulating the ground.
degradable) or hydro degradable.
- Additives can be added to any thermoplastic and
are often used in LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC and PET. Oxy-degradable Polymer:
- Polymer breaks down into a fine powder with exposure to
Type 2- oxygen and is degraded by action of micro-organisms.
- Degradation occurs as the action of micro- - Length of time for the polymer to degrade can be
organisms which convert the material into water, "programmed" during manufacture and ranges from a few
carbon dioxide, biomass and potentially methane. months to a few years.
- There are some polymers that degrade in a few - Oxy-degradable additive is commonly used in LDPE
weeks while others may take several months. carrier bags and results in the carrier bag breaking down
- Ability of polymers to biodegradable would depend into small confetti shapes and then into powder.
on the structure of the polymer rather than the origin
of the raw material. Hydro-degradable Polymer:
- Breaks down with exposure to water and then micro-
organisms.
- They tend to degrade more quickly than oxy-
degradable polymers.
- The additives are used in liquid detergent sachets,
single use chocolate box trays and large-scale laundry
bags as the big would dissolve when it comes into
contact with faster from the washing machine. This
 Classification of Polymers:
Implications of use of bio-polymer and biodegradable
polymer:
- Can produce methane gas when they decompose in
landfill. (Methane is a greenhouse gas and will contribute to
global warming)
- Can take high temps to decompose and may leave behind
toxic leave behind toxic residue.
- Natural bio-polymer need land to grow crops that make
them. Could result in traditional agriculture land being
lost to "grow polymers" and may lead to an increase in
food costs for the consumer.
- Natural bio-polymer can be made from being recycled but
their use may not encourage people to recycle and would
lead contributing to a throw-away culture.
- Natural bio-polymer could be made from genetically
modified crops.
- Both bio-polymers and biodegradable polymers can be
processed in the same way as thermoplastics such as
Injection Moulding and Blow Moulding.
- Bio-polymer and biodegradable polymer sound similar and
this may make it harder for customers to make a positive
environmental choice when shopping.
Smart Material: Composites:
- A materials physical property that changes in - A material that uses two or more different
response to an input or change in the materials and this leads in a material having
environment such as electricity, pressure enhanced properties.
temperature or light. - Composites like CFRP and GRP can be easily
- Used in products to increase safety or ease of molded into complex 3D forms using a lay-up
use. method. This allows monocoque designs to be
produced which would be impossible to create
using traditional materials like wood or metals.
Modern Materials:
- Materials that will continue to evolve as
technology advances.
- Are developed through the invention of
new or improved processes because of
man-made materials or human
intervention.
- Modern materials are seen as "Smart
Materials" but they do not react to
external changes.
Polymer Enhancements - Additives making polymer easier and less expensive to producer -
- Generally inert and will resist more - Processes for polymer involve melting it into powder or granules and then forcing
chemicals, insects and fungal them into specific shapes.
attacks. - Each has a different working properties but may be processed in the same way.
- Characteristics can be enhanced - Additives called process aids help make the polymer flow more easily into a
using additives that give several mould.
advantages like improving
aesthetics and working properties. Lubricants:
Additives to enhance aesthetics - - Addition of wax or calcium stearate reduces the viscosity of molten polymer
making it “less sticky” allowing more intricate shapes to be formed.
Pigments: - This would save energy it allows the moulding temperature to be lowered.
- tiny particles that are mixed into Thermal Antioxidants: To prevent the polymer oxidizing or discoloring due to heat
involved in the process.
molten polymer to give colour.
1.3 Enhancement of
Additives to improve functions -
Antistatic:
Materials:
- As they have poor electrical conductivity, they are used for insulating products like electric wire covers and plugs and
sockets.
- But the insulating property can lead to a build-up of static electrical charge making it attract dirt and dust.
- Addition of antistatic improves surface conductivity by attracting moisture from the room surroundings, reducing the static
charge.

Flame retardants:
- Bromine, Chlorine, Phosphorous or metal when added to polymers like polyester will reduce the chances of combustion or
spread of fire.
- Important in products exposed to head like car engine components or potential electrical fires as plug sockets.

Plasticisers:
- Allow plastics like PVC to become less hard and brittle at normal temperature use.
Fillers: (Have a dual function) Additives to encourage degradation:​
​
To provide bulk to products resulting in less polymer Biodegradable Plasticizers:​
needed: - Like plasticizers used to enhance processing, these
- Commonly used fillers are sawdust and wood flour. make polymer more flexible, softer and easier to break
- Sawdust and flour provide bulk. down meaning fast degradation time.​
​
To improve the polymer properties: Bio-batch additives:​
- Commonly used fillers are mineral fillers like chalk, calcium - Oxy-degradable, photodegradable and hydro-
carbonate and clay. degradable additives can be added to help reduce
- Increases the thermal reduce conductivity of polymer. degradation time from hundreds of years to few years
(Heat up and cool down faster giving shorter mould cycle or months.​
times) - Oxy-degradable additives commonly used in high
volume single use items like food packaging and carrier
bag as the bag will start to disintegrate after pre-
determined length of time and will not contribute to
landfill issues.​
Additives to prolong life - (Prevent degradation)

Antioxidants:
- Help reduce the environment deterioration of the polymer from exposure to oxygen in air.
- Polymer degradation can lead to increased brittleness, surface cracks and pigment discoloration.

UV light stabilizers: (Prevent polymer chain being broken down by sunlight)

- UV case polymer to lose color and become more brittle.
- Evident in products like polymer garden furniture or outdoor children’s toy which would fade or lose color when in the sun
for a long time.
- White pigmented items turn yellow and darker colors like green and blue take on a milky effect from UV exposure.
- PVC hosepipes can become more brittle, and cracks appear in tubing because of UV exposure.
Wood Enhancements –
- Natural wood have defects like splits or knot which can affect the overall stability.
- Can split due to the grain pattern and is why manufactured boards such as MDF and Plywood has been developed.
- Due to lack of grain structure and consistent strength throughout the board they are a popular choice for
manufacturing purposes.
Natural wood as a manufacturing material has several disadvantages:
- Strength properties decrease when wood is wet.
- Highly combustible.
- Susceptible to fungal and insect attack and rot.
- Anisotropic meaning it has different properties in different directions, for example
wood is easier to split along its grain than against the grain.

- Despite these disadvantages, wood is still used as a building and manufacturing

material and can be enhanced to give improved quality like improved resistance to
weather, fungal or insect attack and fire.
Enhancements using preservatives:
- Wood for buildings is highly sought after due to the beautiful grain and colour, good insulating properties and as a
renewable material. It’s an environmentally friendly source.
- To protect wood from fungal and insect attack, it can be pre-treated with preservatives which penetrate the wood to give
the enhanced properties throughout wood section.
- Use of preservatives is particularly important for outdoor timbers. (often copper based as it has naturally occurred
mineral with excellent fungicidal properties)
- Pigments also be added to the preservatives to give different coloured shades to enhance the aesthetics of the wood
product. (Decking’s)
- Preservations with fire retardant properties are used to pressure treat wood for applications such as roof systems
claddings, joins and exhibition stands.
- Wood can also be treated to make it harder and more resistant in high wear situations like flooring.
- Wood is impregnated with modified natural polysaccharide like cellulose in timber.
- Polysaccharides effectively cure within the wood call structure to produce wood that has increased hardness, toughness
and stability.
Resin and Lamination:
- Wood industry uses engineered wood to enhance the properties of the unusable parts of trees.
(Like manufactured boards where long, wide sheet materials are manufactured using wood
parts like saw dust, wood ships and fibres)

Advantages of manufactured boards include:

- Less prone to defects like warping, splitting or shrinkage.
- Greater load bearing properties.

Chipboards:
- Made by compressing wood chips with a resin such as Urea formaldehyde.
- Produces a board which is very stable and isn’t affected by temperature and humidity as
much as solid wood.
- Uniform strength and has no grain problem.
- Resin used is impregnated with fire retardant additives as this gives more uses such as
internal cladding, structural components and flooring.
- Most manufactured boards have veneers laminated onto the surface.
Structural composite lumber
(SCL) and laminated veneer
lumber (LVL):
- Engineered woods made by
layering either veneers or
strands of wood with resin such
as urea formaldehyde, pressing
and heat curing them to
produce a stable wood billet.
Metal Enhancements - Case Hardening:
- Each individual metal has a range of - Process used for hardening surface of steels with
properties like toughness, hardness and less than 0.4% carbon content.
ductility.
- Metals are made up of millions of tiny 2 Stage Process:
metal grains, and structure of these grains
influences the properties. Carburizing:
- Grain size and nature is dependent on - Changes chemical composition of the surface of low
certain elements within the metal as well carbon steel so that it can absorb carbon to increase
as the temperature that the metal has surface hardness.
been heated to and the subsequent rate of - In industry, steel is placed in a ceramic box when
cooling during processing. it's packed with carbon.
- Metal properties can be enhanced through - Box heated to about 930-940 C for a predetermined
the controlled application of heating and length of time.
Work Hardening:
cooling known as heat treatment. - At this temperature, carbon atoms can diffuse into
- When a metal is "cold
the material's structure to build up the surface
worked" like being bent, rolled
carbon content.
or hammered, the crystals
- Depth of carbon layer is determined by length of
within the metal are distorted
time the material is exposed to carob.
and changed. This leads to
- Longer the time, the thicker the carbon layer.
improved tensile strength and
- Product is then heated to about 770 C and then
hardness in the worked area Annealing:
quenched.
known as work hardening. - Used to make work hardening metal easier to
- Work hardening: When the work by making it less brittle and more ductile.
metal crystals are distorted, - Metal is heated and then very slowly cooled
they are prevented from allowing the metal crystals to grow and slowly
moving freely within the metal move into place.
structure, which results in less - In industry, this process is carried out at a
ductility, in cracking or damage specific temperature-controlled furnace.
in the work area. - Can also be carried out in school workshops
 Quenching:
- Hot metal is quenched in
water.
- Fast cooling process
which seals the hard
surface case while not
affecting the properties of
the inner core.
- Case hardening can also
be carried out in a
workshop through a
similar carburizing and
quenching process.
- Steel is heated to red-hot
and then dipped in carbon
powder, heated again
then quickly
Hardening quenched
and in
Tempering:
-cold water. the process of heating medium and high carbon steels to alter the crystalline
Hardening
structure, holding them at this temperature for a given time and then quenching them in
water, oil or saltwater baths.
- Hardening and subsequent quenching increases the hardness property but also increases
the brittleness of metal.
- After hardening, the steel have large internal stresses, and they are often much harder
than required and often too brittle for practical uses.
- Tempering is a heat treatment process for medium and high carbon steels that is carried
out after hardening to reduce excess hardness and increase toughness.
- Reduction in hardness leads to an increase in ductility and decreases the brittleness of
the metal.
- To temper a metal, it's heated below the critical point for a given time then slowly air
Paper and Board Forming Processes - Die Cutting and Creasing:
- Are important materials in product design and - To cut paper or card (Nets or Developments) which, when folded and
manufacture. assembled will become a 3D shape such as a box.
- An effort to reduce effect on the environment, - Where parts of the net are to be folded, the creasing rules scores the
more products are being made from paper and paper/card.
board, replacing less sustainable material. - The creasing rules are not as high as the cutting Die and are also
blunt making sure they don't cut into the material but instead make a
dent into it.
- Creasing channels are a raised part on the bed of the machine.
- Together with the creasing rule, will make a line where material can
be bent.
- Cutting dies are sharp and will cut out the outline of the net.
- Rubber pads fixed to the press helps the paper or card stay in place
1.4 Forming Redistribution and when the process happens.

Bending:
Addition Process:
Laser Cutting:
- Stamped out net is placed onto a - Perfect for prototype construction on small scale
folding table. production as they can be used to cut, engrave,
- some die cutting presses may be perforate or carve.
equipped with moving parts that help to - Uses of lasers in packaging is popular for small
bend or fold parts of a net batches due to their speed, accuracy and high level
automatically. of detail that is possible.
- When making boxes, the die cut net is - Lasers are also very flexible as they are not limited
held while the sides of the box are bend to making a single net shape or design.
along the crease lines. - 2D drawings can be quickly downloaded to be cut
- Some complex finishing may be done meaning that it's much quicker and more flexible
by hand. than making a plywood die board.
- In industry, larger machines may carry - Laser cutting can also be used to process paper,
Polymer Processes:
- Used in very wide range of products and are one of
the most important groups of materials.

Thermoforming -
- Used to mold additional detail into surface of the polymer or to mold thick polymer sheets such as 6mm acrylic.
- Used for Baths, fruit punnets, cake boxes and sandwich boxes (especially when logos or names might need to be
moulded into the polymer).
- This is an industrial process making it slow but can achieve fine details such as embossed lettering/logos unlike
with vacuum forming.

The process -
- Similar to vacuum forming, except there is an additional mould that is pressed onto the surface of the polymer
sheet at the same time as the vacuum is applied, sucking the polymer down on the mould below.
- The two moulds trap the softened polymer in between, allowing extra details to the moulding.
Lamination (Lay-up) -
- Used to make 3D products from fibre-based composites such as GRP or CFRP
- Used for Boats, yachts, kayaks and cars.

The process -
- Mould in shape of product is prepared.
- Coated with release agent like wax or PLA or covered in parcel tape.
- Top layer of gel coat (Polyster Resin mixed with pigment to give a colour to the moulding) is applied, the resin may have
additives to prevent degradation from UV and hydrolysis.
- CFRP used then curing takes place is specialist autoclave.
- Fibreglass matting cut to size and laid over. Polyster resin brushed onto matting and small roller used to push out any air
bubbles that may form and to smooth out the matting (known as stippling). Matting is available in a range of stock forms
including chopped strand, woven and “tissue”, which is a fine grade matting for covering the surface.
- Layer of gel added and cured till desired thickness achieved and fine tissue matting used on the top layers. Vacuum bag
can be used to compress layers of GRP before it sets and ensure time is given to fully set.
e Bending -
ed to produce bends in sheet of thermoplastic such as acrylic.
es an electrically heated element that provides heat along a line.
ed for: Acrylic boxes, shelves and point of scale displays.
ne off or limited batch production as it is slow and labour intensive.
hool often use them for prototyping.

Vacuum Forming -
- Used to make 3D products like lightweight trays, box insert and liners, coffee cups and yogurt pots.
- Used in schools as moulds are relatively easy to make.
- Technique generally used for making larger numbers of items due to the time required to make the moulds making it not
cast effective for one-off manufacture.
- Process used with thermoplastic sheets such as HIPS.
- Mould in the shape of product to be made.
- Mould must have small draft angle to allow mould to be removed from the polymer sheet when formed into the moulding.
- As the process is slow, it’s limited to small scale bath production.
- If larger scale of production is required, moulds to be made from cast and machined aluminium as it gives consistent
results with a high-quality surface finish.
- Is limited to shaping polymer sheet of up to about 6mm in thickness.

The process -
- Mould is placed on bed of the machine called the “platen”.
- It’s lowered to the bottom of the machine.
- Polymer sheet is clamped over the mould and heater is pulled over the sheet.
- When it has softened, the platen is raised into the polymer and the heat is removed.
- Vacuum pump is switched on and sucks the polymer onto the mould.
- Once cooled and solidified, platen is lowered, and vacuum is switched off.
- Mould is removed and excess polymer is trimmed off.
Calendaring –
- Smoothing and rolling process used towards end of manufacturing paper or used for thin polymer sheet and film stock for
further processing into products later in the production cycles.
- Used for floor tiles and shower curtains.
- Continuous products (on industrial scale)

The process -
- Works by heating pallets of thermoplastics so that it melts into a dough-like consistency.
- It’s then extruded through a series of heated rollers so that it becomes squashed and stretched to make it thinner.
- It’s then finished on cooling rollers, before being chopped into standard stock sheet sizes or (for polymer film) it’s rolled up
for storage and distribution.

Injection Moulding -
- Industrial process used to manufacture complex in terms made from thermoplastic.
- Used for: Casing for TV's, Vacuum cleaners, computers, circuit boards holder, battery
housing, and screw posts.
- Complex parts can only be made by melting polymer forcing it into mould by high pressure,
- Usually used for large scale mass production due to high cost of equipment and moulds.

The Process -
- Thermoplastic granules poured into hopper.
- Archimedean screw is rotated by a motor and pulls the granules through the chamber into
the electric heater.
- Heater melts the polymer.
- Once the polymer has melted and formed at the end of the screw, a hydraulic ram forces
the screw thread forwards, this injects the polymer to harden it quickly.
- Mould is water cooled, and this enables the molten polymer into the mould
- When the mould opens, ejector pins pushes the product out.
- Excess polymer is trimmed off the moulding. Former jigs may be used to maintain
Blow Moulding -
- Used for: Bottles, jars, containers and storage tanks.
- Most common polymers are PET, LPDE, HDPE and PP.
- Normally used for continuous products due to the high setup costs with the
equipment and mould.
- Many products now produced by injection blow moulding using an injection
moulded preform.
- Especially used for products that require a greater level of tolerance.

The Process -
- Polymer is fed into a hopper.
- Archimedean screw feed the polymer into the heated section, melting the
polymer.
- Melted polymer extruded as a tube, called a "Parison".
- Mould side close around the parison and air is injected into mould, forcing
polymer to the side of the mould.
-Rotational
Polymer isMoulding
allowed -to cool for a few seconds, the mould opens, and the finish
bottle is ejected.
- Produce heavy duty, seamless hollow objects that need a large wall thickness.
- Used for: Traffic cones, kayaks, water tanks and children play tanks and children play equipment.
- HDPE and PP often used.
- Moulds can be changed relatively quick so different products can be made on the same machine but set up costs
are high and as a result it's used for large scale or mass production.

The Process -
- Powder or granules are loaded into a mould that is clamped and sealed.
- It's then transferred to an oven where it's heated to 260C to 370C depending on the polymer that is used.
- Mould is then rotated slowly (with fewer that 20 rotations per minute) around 2 axes and as it's heated, it coats the
inside of the mould.
- Once desired thickness has been achieved, mould is called usually by a fan and/or water is used.
Compression Moulding -
- To mould thermosetting polymers like UF and MF.
- Typical products that are made from UF using this process: Electrical light
fittings, switches and electrical plugs.
- MF products: Polymer plates, mugs, bows for a children's picnic set.

The process -
- "Slug of pre-weighted thermoset polymer inserted into pre-heated mould.
- Mould closed and hydraulic pressure applied. Pressure ensures that polymer
takes the shape of mould.
- Moulds remain closed while cross-linking takes place and the thermoset
"cures".
- Once it cures, machine opens, and product is removed. Excess polymer known
as "flash" is removed.

Extrusion -
- To produce either solid rod, hollow tube, angles, sections such as "I" and "T"
channels in polymers.
- Can be used to coat electrical wire with a polymer like PVC for insulation.
- Similar to injection moulding, but the polymer is forced through a die to form the
shape of the extrusion.
- Continuous production of stock material. (Only to be used by specialist
manufactures).

The process -
- Granules are loaded into the hopper.
- Archimedean screw moves the polymer granules past heaters and softens the
polymer.
- Once it has melted, hydraulic ram pushes Archimedean screw, forcing polymer
Metal Process: Wrought Iron Forging -
- Can be grouped into forming - Form of iron that is suitable for forging, rolling and bending rather than
processes (process in which no
casting.
material is removed, but that deform
materials to produce required - Has a very low carbon content of less that 0.08% which makes it suitable for
shapes), redistribution processes and hammering into shape making it very malleable.
wastage process. - Can be shaped using hand tools.
Forming Process: - Typically, wrought iron is heated in a gas or coke-fired forge.
- Then shaped by holding it with tongs, hammering it over an anvil or other
Drop Forging - tools such as scroll formers or twisting bars.
- Used to shape got metal into finished products.
Uses Steel.
- Created tough (impact resistant) and hard products.
- Used for: Spanners, pliers and screwdriver shafts.
- Allows hot metals to be formed and maintains the internal grain structure
and thus the strength required.
- Mass production of identical items due to the fact that the dies are
dedicated to make one specific item.
- Dies can be changed quickly to make different products using the same
hydraulic ram.
The Process -
- Die is made from cast tool steel to resemble a mould and is secured to
the top on an anvil.
- Ram is also equipped with a die that resembles a mould.
- Metal "billet" to be forged is heated above its recrystallisation
temperature (temp below melting point shape of the metal as which point
it's possible to change the size and shape of the grain that make up the
metal). Stops product form work hardening as it cools, which would make
it brittle.
- Using tongs, heated billet is placed by an operator into the anvil die,
ram is brought down with force and makes the hot billet spread around
Press Forming - Cupping and Depp Forging -
- Shape sheet metal into 3D forms. To form tube-like shapes such as: Fire extinguishers and high-
- Uses Medium Carbon Steel and Aluminum due to pressure aerosol cans.
their malleability and ductility. - Considered "deep drawing" when depth of pressing exceed
- Used for: Metal seats, car body panels, boxes and diameter.
containers. - Cupping and deep drawing is a multi-operation process.
- Is often combined with punching (wastage process) - Similar to piercing and blanking metals with a punch except that
to removed parts of the sheet or to trip excess metal in deep drawing, corners of punch are round. Causes metal to
off the sheet. stretch rather than being sheared.
- Press formers can be used in conjunction with robots, - High setup cost of hydraulic presses and dies used and means
the sheet metal is lifted and placed onto the machine, that the processes is used in continuous or mass production of
and finished pressings are transferred to next process. identical items.
- Mass production or large-scale batch production due
to cost and complexity of making the dies. The process -
- Dies are made from hardened steel, often machined - Pressing blank clamped over deep drawing die using a pressure
using spark erosion techniques (where a material is pad or clamping ting known as a retainer.
worn away using sparks) and hand burnished to give a - Hydraulic press moved the deep drawing punch to be in contact
high-quality surface. with the blank. Then pushes the blank into the die cavity to make
- Making dies is a highly skilled specialist job making it a cup shape.
costly. - The "cup" then pressed further down through the deep drawing
die to make desired tube shape.
The Process -
- Sheet metals clamped over a die of product that will
determine final shape of pressing.
- Hydraulic press pushes die into the sheet metal.
Cutting blades may be included to punch holes into
the sheet and trim excess from the edges.
- Hydraulic die lowered and the pressed sheet
component is removed.
- Sheet may be placed into further press forming
Spinning -
- Alternative process to press forming for shaping objects such as the
body of stainless-steel kettles, saucepans and other products of radial
symmetry.
- Uses stainless-steel.
- Involves spinning a sheet of metal at high speed as it's pushed over a
former or mandrel.
- Spun products can be identified by parallel lines that are formed on
the surface of metal during the process,
- Mass production as it can be set up using a CNC so that thousands of
identical products can be made.
- However, formers are relatively simple, can be used in batch
production, particularly when dome-shaped items need to be made but
the quantity required does not justify the cost associated with press
forming.

The process -
- Former called a "mandrel" is put into chuck. Sheet metal blanks is held
in place between mandrel and the tail stock.
- Roller tool is moved into the blank and is rotated with the mandrel.
Starts to stretch the metal over the mandrel.
- Roller tool is moved along the mandrel as pressure is maintained
against the rotated blank.
- Roller tool is moved along the mandrel as pressure is maintained
against the rotated blank..
- Is moved out to the end of the mandrel, while still maintaining contact
with the blank. This finishes shape of the product.
Finished product is remove from mandrel and material is trimmed off
following the spirring process.
Bending -
- To bend sheet or plate metal in industry is done using a press brake.
- Desired bends are achieved by clamping stock metal between a matching punch die.
- Hydraulic, pnuematic or mechanical brake holds the sheet or plate and lowers the punch to bend the material to shape.
- Modern press brake use a device known as a back gauge to accurately position the piece of metal so that brake bends the
metal in correct place.
- Additionally, back gauge can be CNC so that it can bend metal repeatedly for bending complex shapes.
- "V" shaped, 90 degrees and radius dies are most used.
- Press brakes and dies can also be used to make seams between two sheets of metal and hammering sheet to make it safe
to handle by the edges.
- Unlike press forming, bending does not usually combine any punching or trimming.
Rolling -
- One-off or large-scale batch production.
- Process in which stock metal is passed through set of rollers to reduce thickness
of material (Calendaring).
- Carried out with hot metal that has been heated to above its recrystallisation
temperature (cold rolling).
- Used for: Structural steel members such as "I" beams for the construction
industry, metal stock forms such as angle, bar, plate and channel, rails and
railway
Hot tracks.
Rolling:
Results in material with mechanical properties that are uniform throughout
the sample. Cold Rolling:
At room temperature.
Advantages -
- Rolling while it's hot means that there will be no deformation or stresses Advantages -
which could result in a fault in the material. - Materials have tighter tolerance as carbon
- Hot rolled material have a more generous tolerance applied to their deposits are not formed during rolling
dimensions due to the carbon deposits on surface. process.
- Surface finish is much better.
Disadvantages -
- Surface is usually covered with carbon deposits which have to be removed Used for: Filing cabinets, steel drums,
Metal Redistributive Processes:

Die Casting -
- Used to mould lower melting point metals like
aluminum, alloys of aluminum and zinc-based
alloys.
- It uses tool steel moulds making it reuseable as
they can be melted and remoulded into a new
mould.
- As it created complex shapes and production of
making the dies are high, this meant that it's used
in large bathes or mass production.
- They produce very high-quality finishes as are
made for: Alloy wheels, engine components and
toy cars.

Gravity die casting -

- Simple form as you only need to melt the metal and pour it
into the mould compared to sand casting it's less labour
intensive.
- Process relies on gravity to help metal flow through the
mould.
- When pouring molten metal in the mould, the runner is
used but the riser would indicate when the mould is full.
- When the product has been cooled, mould is opened and
the casting can be removed.
- Typically used to make parts that have thicker or heavier
Pressure die casting -
- There are 2 forms, a hot and cold chamber.

Hot Chamber:
- The molten metal is stored in a chamber that is part of the high pressure die casting.
- A pneumatic/hydraulic plunger forces a "shot" of molten metal through the "goose neck" increasing the
pressure into the die.
- As the high pressure builds up from the restriction of flow, it allows fine details within the mould.

Cold Chamber:
- Aluminum is casted with cold chamber as it picks iron from the steel chamber when the hot chamber is
being used.
- Instead of being stored, molten metal is kept separately in a melting crucible.
- This is then ladled into the shot chamber and the hydraulic ram forces the molten metal into the mould
cavity.
Investment casting -
-- When it cast
Used to hardens,
itemsthe mould
that haveopen andmore
a much ejector pins pushes theshape
complex/intricate product out. it difficult to mould in other
making
casting processes.
- Used for parts of an engine and hip replacement joint as it provides a high- quality finish.
- Uses stainless steel, brass, aluminum and carbon steel.
- When a master mould it used the cast can be repeated.

The process -
- Replica of the product to be casted is made from wax as it could potentially be made with a mast mould
machined in steel or aluminum making it batch produced. Additional wax patterns may be joined
together in a "tree" as well as a replica of the runner that will be used.
- Wax pattern is then dip coated with refractory clay and fired in a kiln to bake the clay hard and burn the
wax away. This then leaves the hollow clay mould.
- Molten metal is poured and once the metal fills the mould, it's then cooled.
- Clay mould is then broken away and pieces are crushed and recycled. This reveals the casting, and the
Sand Casting -
- Forms high melting point metals into components and products.
- Uses moulds made from sand.
- The process is slow and labor intensive as the moulds single use only. This makes it a one-off production and batch
production of products.
- Used for: Railway carriage wheels, clamps and vices and motor and pump housings.

The process -
- Moudling would often be made from wood and are often divided into 2 halves. This is placed in mostly any box knows as a
"drag". It's then filled with sand which is packed in tight and levelled.
- Second box knows as the "cope" is clamped above the drag and the top half of the mould is placed into it to connect with
the bottom half of the mould. Wooden stakes are then used to be positioned in the cope. This would be used to insert
spruce/runner and riser later.
- Sand is packed again and is around the runner riser and the mould itself. A small depression is made around the spruce to
make as a pouring basin.
- The cope and drag becomes separated and stakes and mould are carefully removed. Connecting channels are cut to join
the spruce to cavity and from this to the riser. Cope and drag and then re-assembled and the mould is ready for pouring.
- Small metal spikes to be inserted and removed to make vent holes as this allows gasses from casting to escape.
- When the molten metal is poured into the basin, it, flows down the runner, into the cavity and when it's full, it flows up the
riser showing that it's full. Once it has been cooled, sand is removed to reveal the casting. The runner, channels and riser
are then cut off with a hack saw and casting is ready.
Lower temperature pewter casting - Metal Addition/Fabrication process:
- Pewter an alloy with low melting point and is ideal When pieces are being added/fabricated together using permeant
for making small-scale items such as jewelry and or temporary joining methods.
key fobs.
- One-off production as moulds are easily made and
Metal inert gas welding -
range of materials can be used.
- Used to weld thin gauge metal such as medium carbon steel as
- High scale productions can be done using
heat generated via electric arc is localized to a small area and
aluminum or steel moulds since they have a higher
won't burn through metal or distort surrounding metals.
metling point then pewter.
- As it's used to weld aluminum as aluminum electrode wire is
used, it's used in climbing frames, bike frames, vehicle exhausts
The process -
and welding pipes.
- Mould made from MDF, plywood or high-density
- Can be a one-off production or part of a mass production such as
moulding clay. This would include spruce and
making cars on a production line.
runner.
- This uses an electric arc to create heat that melts within the arc
- Mould is then sandwiched between 2 pieces of
and fills gaps between two pieces being joined together.
mould clamped together. Top of the mould will be
- When forming a continuous bead of weld, the operator would
level with the top of the side pieces.
swirl the gun as they move it over the joint.
- Pewter is melted in a ladle and then poured into
- When the trigger is pressed, the electrode wire is stored on the
the spruce. Once it has cooled off it's then removed
reel and advances through the gun.
from the mould and spruce and riser is removed.
- It uses inert gas like carbon dioxide or argon to from a "flux"
- Casting then filed and cleaned up using abrasive
shield over the area that is being joined.
wet and dry paper and casting would then be
- Gas shield replaces the oxygen at the joint area, and this helps
polished.
to prevent oxidization that would prevent the weld from forming
properly.

Advantages -
- High productivity
- Low-cost welding process
- Can weld all types of metal alloys.
Tungsten inert gas welding -
- Used to weld metals like stainless steel as well as non-ferrous metals like aluminum and copper or magnesium alloys.
- Similar to MIG welding but the electrode is made from tungsten and does not melt in the process.
- It uses a sperate filler rod and a gas shield of either argon or helium is used to protect the weld area from oxidation.
- Stronger welds can be created as it gives the operator more control making it more accurate. However, a disadvantage is
that it requires a higher level of skill and is much slower.
- This would be used in Aerospace industry, automobiles industry and stainless-steel ladders for boats or swimming pools.

Advantages -
- High quality, superior welds.
- There is no slags or splatters.
- Easily applied to thin material.

Oxy-acetylene welding -
- Welds low carbon steel sheet, tube or plate where arc welding processes are not
available and would be used for quick repair jobs where there is no electric power supply
and automative repair.
- It uses two high pressure gasses known as Oxygen and Acetylene and they form a flame
up to 3500 degrees.
- As the gases are stored in separate bottles and mixed in a blow torch, the intensity and
temperature of the flame can be adjusted by changing the gas and oxygen mixture via
valves on the bottle and torch and allows for either flame cutting, welding or brazing.

The process -
- Metal is prepared by grinding an angle on the edge of two pieces and joined to form a "v"
shape. This is done to ensure that the weld runs through the entire thickness of the metal.
- Join aerial is heated to form a melt and at the same time, steel filler rod is introduced to
the join area. Melt pool extends to form a continuous bead along the length of the join and
Riveting -
- Permeant joining method used to join sheet metal or plate.
- In traditional cold riveting, 2 pieces are joined and overlapped and drilled.
- It's a metal that unthreads faster and used expansion to clamp materials together
and form a secure bond. It consists of a heat and tail/shank/shaft at the other end.
- Head of rivet is dome shaped and a "set" tool is placed over this knows as a snap.
- End of shaft is then hammered which compresses and deforms to create another
head expanding the material which helps bind the materials.
- This is used where there is only access to one side and would be used for joining
handle of a trowel onto the blade.

Pop Riveting -
- A more modern form of riveting and is used for joining
thin sheet metal. This uses a pop riveting and a pin.
- Rivet head is pushed through a pre-drilled hole through
the 2 pieces of the metal being joined.
- Riveting pilers grip and pull the pin and when this
occurs, head of rivet is squashed and pulls the 2 pieces of
metal together and this breaks the pin off.
- Would be used in Aircraft production to join sheet
aluminum to structural parts.
Soldering -
- Joining 2 or more metals using a filler metal as it has a low melting
point.
- This would be used for lightweight applications and thin gauge
metals. It's mostly used to join precious metal like gold and silver such
as seam on a ring or copper pipes in plumbing.
- With soldering, the metal needs to be very clean and that it's
important that no gaps to be seen between the areas that are being
joined.
-Soft soldering
It uses a filler- material of a lower melting point such as alloy of tin or
- Used to join small intricate parts of the metal which can get easily
copper.
deformed with higher temperature.
- The solder used would be a thick form on a wound spool that
melts at 200 degrees.
- Metals that create a permanent joint: Copper, brass and electrical
circuit components.
Hard soldering -
- The joining of metallic surfaces by an interposed alloy film.
- Used on metal work for stronger joints and the solder used is
thicker and stronger with the wire melting at 625 degrees.
- Metals that create a permanent join: Gold, silver, brass and
copper.
The process -
- Metal is cleaned and degreased.
- Joined area is wired and clamped.
- Metal is heated up to the melting point of the solder.
- Solder is added to metal and will flow along the join using capillary action.
- It's then cleaned to remove any flux residue.
Brazing -
- Uses either oxy-acetylene or a gas and compressed air brazing hearth.
- A lower temperature than welding, making it ideal for joining thinner gauge
low carbon steel, tube or bar.
- The joint is not as strong as welding but generally ideal for fabrication.
- It uses a filler rod made from brass that melts at 850 degrees.
- Used for steel framework for furniture, plant stand or ornamental lights.
- Can be used to join dissimilar metals.

The process -
- Material that is to be joined is to be cleaned and degreased.
- 2 pieces are then clamped together.
- Flux is applied to help prevent it from oxidizing.
- It's then heated using an oxy-acetylene or gas/air torch to a
temperature of roughly 850 degrees.
- Brazing rod is then applied to the joint area. Brazing "spelter
flows along the joint by capillary action to the hottest part
therefore it can be made to follow joint line by manipulating the
torch.
Advantages:
- Doesn't melt base metal of joint, so it allows much tighter control over
tolerances and produces a clean joint without the need for secondary
finishes.
- Complex and multipart assemblies can be brazed cost-efficiently
meaning there are no secondary cleaning involved.

Disadvantages:
- General lack of joint strength.
Metal temporary fasteners and joining methods: Machine screws -
Used where a permanent joining method is not - Type of bolt that has a metric thread that is used to join
required or when a product needs to be thicker pieces of metal together.
disassembled or to make it accessible for - Used for holding electronics, engines and large industrial
maintenance. manufacturing equipment.
Self-tapping screws - - Comes in a course thread with 24 threads per inch and thin
- Used for joining think sheet metal. thread being 32 thread per inch.
- Screws have a coarse thread which is made from hardened
Nut and bolt -
steel.
- Nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole.
- Pilot hole is drilled through the metal to be joined, as the screw
- Bolts are used with nuts and washers.
goes into the pilot hole, its cuts into the thread which holds the
- Bolt is put all the way through both pieces of metal
screw into place.
and then a nut tightens on the end of the bolt to keep
- Ideal for combining
Thread-forming 2 types
is used of material
for plastic as theywhere access
deform whencan be
they
the pieces together.
from 1into
enter side.
the material.
- Spacers also known as washers may be used to put
- There is a potential risk in over tightening that can result in the
under the head of the bolt and under the nut to spread
material breaking under pressure.
out the tightening force over the surface of the material
- Thread-cutting screws typically used for wood and metals and
and to stop the bolt head and nut from digging into the
they remove some materials and create a threaded path for the
surface.
screw. This would strip the thread when disassembling.
- Spring washers would be used to keep tensions on the
joint to prevent it from coming loose.
- It’s used for products that contain a - Bolts would be made from aluminum, alloy steels,
panels that may need to be removed, nylon and brass.
for maintenance on computers, - Nuts have a nylon collar insert at the end so that it
washing machines and to access elastically deforms over the bolt thread which prevents
battery housing. the nut from coming undone through vibrations.
- Forming a screw thread within an
injection moulded component would
vastly increase cost of the mould.
- Drill tip at the bottom of the screws
Metal wasting process:
A technique that removes material in order to shape it. This cuts
away parts of the material using processes such as milling,
turning and cutting.
Laser cutting -
- CAD file is used to direct a laser to cut materials and used for precision cutting
metal, but lower powered laser cutters are used in schools for manufactured boards
and acrylic.
- High power laser cutter direct the laser through optics and the laser melts the
material at high-pressure gas or compressed air would blow the melted material
through the sheet.
- Laser beam is emitted from a “laser tube” where it’s reflected through series of
mirrors like a periscope.
- Head contains a lens which focuses laser into a fine beam for cutting and
engraving.
- Have a very fine tolerance and the amount of material removed in cutting can be
less than 1mm.
- It’s a fast process and software for laser cutting that can be easy to operate making
it suitable for one-off production as well as larger scale batches.
- It produces a fine cut with a high-quality surface finish and has less warping or
distortion as the heat zone is smaller unlike plasma cutting.
Milling –
- In the industry, it’s use to cut flat sheet material, but not able to cut the same
- Product is clamped onto the bed of the
thickness as plasma and modern industrial lasers are nearly matching the same
machine.
power of a plasma cutter but are expensive.
- It can run in a X,Y and Z direction.
- Depending on the type of cutter used, milling
can be used to cut slots, to shape edges or the
surface of work pieces or drill and even thread
holes.
Turning -
- Used on a centre lathe where the product is held in a rotating chuck and machined to reduce the diameter, and to square
or “face off” the end, thread and drill is used.
- If there is a piece being machined that is long then it can be supported in the centre by a “tail tock” on the lathe.
- Variety of shaped bars can be turned from round, hexagonal and square as well as tubes. This can be done manually or
using a CNC.
- Material is machined by cutting tools held in tool post that can be moved out and long the bar.
- Most lathes have a rotating tool post that can hold a variety of tools for different machining operations.
- Cutting tools are made from either high-speed steel or tungsten carbide and for many machining operations, a liquid
coolant is flooded over the cutting tool and piece being machined to prevent tools from blunting and to generally maintain
Punching/stamping –
good finish on the product that is being machined.
- CNC is used which stamps out sections of sheet material using hardened
punches following the program. This program then moves the table of the
machine in a X and Y direction under the punch.
- Modern CNC punching machines can be programmed using a graphic UI so
that specialist programming skills are not needed.
- Info is taken from a 2D CAD drawing to select the correct tooling to make the
desired part.
- Software is also used to configure most efficient layout of parts from a given
sheet known as “nesting”.
- Process uses shearing action on a sheet of metal placed between an upper
too known as the punch and a lower tool known as the die.
- Punch pushes through the sheet material and this produced a punching slug
that drops through a hole into a die.
- Pieces are collected via a chute for further work or recycling if the quality/
tolerance is not high enough for that needed desired part.
- Alternatively, punched parts can be tabbed into the sheet with micro joints
and enables the sheet to be take out as one piece for later use or subsequent
machining.
- Punching machine use either a single tool head or a multi-tool turret to punch
Plasma cutting - Flaming cutting -
- Is a super-heated ionised gas that is electrically conductive and will - Oxy-acetylene gas is used and a special flame-
use this to transfer the energy from the PSU to a conductive material cutting torch to provide a very intense and focused
such as steel plate. flame above 3.5k degrees.
- Is produces a faster and cleaner cut that oxy-acetylene and the - Is used to cut low carbon and alloy steel plates and
plasma arc is directed out of a torch where a gas like oxygen, manual flame cutting is an economical process to set
nitrogen, argon or compressed air is forced through a tiny nozzle. up as the equipment is readily available.
- An electric arc is generated from a transformer and combined with - Can be carried out in almost any location as
gas; this forms a jet of plasma. electricity is not required.
- Heat generated by the plasma can be as high as 28k degrees which - Can be set up with a CNC system if there is a need
quickly burns through the material and blows it away. for repetitive cutting.
- This would be used in one-off production such as cutting silhouette
shapes from heavy steel plate to make scriptural signs. The process -
- Metal is headed and a melt pool begins to form.
Typical setup system - Additional jet of oxygen is used, and this intensifies
- PSU converts AC mains to DC as this usually varied between 200 the flames and pierces the metal and forces a jet of
VDC to 400 VDC depending on material thickness being cut out. melted metal and caron (slag) with it.
- An arc starting console provides a spark inside the torch to start the - Flame is then moved along the cutting path to
plasma arc. continue the cut.
- Plasma torch contains an electrode and nozzle which are
consumable parts, and the torch can be used manually or controlled Disadvantages -
by CNC. - Hard to achieve parallel lines with high levels of
tolerance.
- May be deformation, structural changes and
tempering on the cut edge.
Wood process: Dowel joint -
- Are small round pegs made from hardwood.
Wood addition and fabrication processes: - Come in range of different diameters.
Most common way of making products from wood is by - Some are machined with grooves to allow glue to flow up the
joining it together with other pieces known as addition. dowel once hammered into place.
- Can also be fabricated using traditional wood joining - Used in flat pack furniture, bookcases and wardrobes.
techniques known as knock-down fittings (KD).
Method -
Traditional wood joint - - Dowel joint made by measuring and marking position of the
dowels.
Butt joint - - Holes for dowels are then drilled into both pieces and wood
- Needs an adhesive such as PVA to make glue is put into the holed of once piece and dowels are then
bonds between 2 pieces. hammered into position.
- Only suitable for lightweight applications.
- Used for modelling.

Method -
- Pieces joined are cut squares.
- PVA applied and joint is clamped till it's dry. Comb joint -
- 2-piece interlock.
- Created more surface area for
Mitre joint - gluing making joints stronger.
- Also relies on adhesive. - Used for boxes.
- Used for picture frames.
Methods -
Method - - Combs can be laser cut, cut on
- Pieces joined are cut to 45 degrees so band saw or using a tenon saw and
that when joined, it makes 90 degrees. wood chisel.
- Like butt joint, PVA is applied, and - An adhesive is then applied and
joint is clamped till dry. then clamped till dry.
Dovetail joint - Mortise and tenon joint -
- Similar to comb joint but has - Used for heavy-duty construction for
direction strength. furniture.
- Once glued it's impossible to pull
apart. Method -
- Used for drawers. - Rectangular hole known as a mortise is
cut out of one of the pieces.
Method - - Is done using either a tenon saw or band
- Dove tails are cut by hand using a saw to make the tenon.
dove tail saw or using a machined - PVA glue is spread into the mortise and
routers and jig. the joint is clamped till dry.

Housing joint -
- Used for shelving, cabinets and making framework. Half lap joint -
- Created more surface are for gluing so joint is
Method - stronger.
- Groove is cut across one piece of wood. - Used for desks and dressers.
- It's then cut to fit the end of other piece of wood so
when they are inserted and glued, the joint is secure Method -
and permanent. - A "step" is cut in the end of each piece.
- Can also be left unglued so adjustments can be - This is done to make a larger gluing surface
made if necessary. area which makes the joint stronger.
- Joint can be made using a tenon saw and chisel or - Are easy to mark out and can be cut with a
by using a router. tenon or a band saw.
Knock-down fittings -
- KD fitting are standardized and interchangeable as they are often used to manufacture flat pack
furniture.
- It enabled manufactures to supply products that are not assembled, and this reduces cost for both
manufactures and consumers.
- It reduces making time and makes transportation easier and cheaper.
- For consumers, KD fittings are relatively easy to use with simple tools and allows them to carry furniture
throughout doorways.
Modesty block -
- Small and rigid polymer block that have moulded holes
that take screws which are used to join the block to panels.
- Simple to use but not very strong and is unattractive.
- Used in storage units and cupboards.

Cam-locks -
- A metal dowel that is screwed into one of the pieces by
inserting a screwdriver into the slot on the side.
- Cam is a disk that fits into a pre-drilled hole in the other
piece.
- When the disk rotates with a screwdriver, collar on the
dowel locks into the cam and pulls both pieces together
tightly.
-Barrel
Used nut
in bookcases.
and bolt -
- Uses a cross dowel that is fitted in one of the pieces to
be joined.
- Bolt is inserted through the other piece of timbre and
tightened into the cross dowel using an Allen key
- Used in bed and table frames.
Wood screws, nuts and Pozidriv (PZ) -
bolts and coach bolts - - Like the Phillip's screw but with further
refinement.
Wood Screws - - Improves contact with screwdriver and
- Have a coarser pitch with fewer threads per inch compared to screws used allows greater torque time.
for sheet metal. - Good for when using power screwdrivers.
- Most time shank does not have a thread.
- Makes it easier for screwing 2 pieces together as the thread is only at the
bottom.
- When joining, the part that is drilled with a clearance hole that the screw
simply pushes through.
- Bottom piece of timbre has a pilot hole thinner than actual thread so that
coarse pitch of the thread bites into the timbre.
- Have a countersink head so that screw fits flush with surface provided that a
countersunk hole has been drilled.
Slot head -
- Simplest economical screw.
- It's tightened with a slot head screwdriver.
- Uses products to be fitted to a wall like
Bolts -
mirrors or light fittings.
- Coach bolts is a form of bolt that joins pieces of
wood together.
Phillips - - Have a thread that runs about two thirds of the
- To improve contact with screwdriver and way.
increase the torque can be applied. - Under the domed head of the blot is a square
- Design of head accepts the screwdriver with piece that digs into the wood when tightened and
an angle of 57 degrees. If there is too much prevents the bolt from rotating.
torque applied to it then the screwdriver will - Means that when bolt is tightened, domed head
slip. can't be undone with a spanner.
- It avoids stripping the thread on the screw. - Is useful in fitting bolts or locks to wooden doors
Wood wasting process: Routing timbre -
- Can be used to machine timbre in order to make slots and holes, or to make
Turning -
decorative "mouldings" on the edges like on a tabletop.
- Involves machining wood on a lathe.
- A portable electric plunger router is the most common as it's a handheld tool
that takes a variety of routing bits depending on one's desired effect.
There are 3 methods -
- Some routers are adjustable so that depth of a slot can be set.
- Are normally supplied within range of accessories like as guides or "fences"
Turning between centers -
making it easier to produce continuous grooves either along or across a piece of
- Spindle to be machined to a reduced
timber.
diameter.
- A CNC can also be used on range of natural timbers, manufactured boards and
- Turning is normally done by hand using
high-density modelling foam.
tools like large chisels known as gouges
- This process is used in making flat-pack furniture, wall plaques or signs.
and scrapers.
- 3D CAD may be used to make things such as moulds for vacuum forming
- Held on a tool rest, moved in and out
where CNC routers will be fully enclosed and have an extractor to safely remove
along length of the spindle.
dust.
- Used for chairs and table legs.

Turning on face plate -

- Screwing a thick piece of timbre to a
faceplate where it can be machined to
turn the outside circumference and to
remove the inside to make it like a
bowel.
- Used for making bowls and domes. Milling timber -
- Too slow to run so they would only be used for small
Turning on a chuck - sized items such as rough protoypes or roughing out
- Can be used to machine the sides and small holes or channels.
inside of wooden bowls and vases. - Don’t have the same range of movements like a
- Rim on the base of a bowel or vase CNC routers as their working area tends to be smaller.
would be gripped by the jaws of the - Can be operated manually or CNC.
Wood forming process:
- Changing the shape of the timber
of manufactured boards.

Laminating -
- Process of bonding materials together.
- Wood veneers or thin manufactured boards such as 3mm plywood can be
glued together and bent over a former so that when it's dry, they form a
thicker board in the shape of the former.
- When drying, the laminated may be held in place with clamps or vacuum
bags.
- When using vacuum bags, former and veneers are placed under a
polythene sheet and edges of the sheet are taped down to the table, a
valve is then fitted to the polymer sheet and a vacuum pump sucks out air,
and resulting pressure pulls the laminated hard together ensuing no gaps.

Steam bending -
- Combines head and steam and makes the strip of timber pliable so that it can be shaped
over a former.
- Involves putting timber into a steam box where timber absorbs the steam.
- Timber is usually bent over a former and clamped to it until it dries.
- Quicker and less wasteful than laminating as the gluing layers takes a long time to dry
and laminating also requires trimming to the final size as well.
- Basic steam box can be made from plywood, and a wallpaper stripper steamer provides
Are used to enhance aesthetics of the final product as Embossing:
well as giving protection against aspects like - Creates raised design on surface of
weathering, moisture, decay and insect attack. paper/card to give visual and tactile effect.
Popular decorative technique used on greeting
3 main terms related to finishing: cards, invitation cards and packaging products
- Self finished with material that has acceptable finish like chocolate boxes or packaging where name
after processing. or special feature on raised area.
- Self coloured with material acceptable colour after
processing. - Process uses 2 dies: Male and female die
- Applied finish is a substance applied to a material which is made from stainless steal or brass.
after processing and is to prevent material from Dies can be cold or heated. The substrate
absorbing moisture, protect against decay or sheet is placed between two dies and held
corrosion, protecting from insect attack and enhance under pressure till embossed area is formed.
appearance of final product.
Paper and Board finishing: 1.5 Use of Raised area can have ink/foil applied to it or
left natural. Embossed area without any ink or
- Should not be overlooked in graphic
design. As well as providing it protection, it Finishes: foil is called a blind emboss.
will provide material enhancement which - Via a surface coating: Surface coating
can attract consumer to specific product
lamination can happen in 2 ways: liquid or
feature. film. Purpose of both is to coat the paper with
Laminating:
- Two main methods. a liquid to seal the paper and protect it.
- Via encapsulation: Carried - Liquid: Applied with a roller or spray and
from desk top laminator which used for applications such as signage to
sheet of paper is encapsulated protect from effects of moisture and dirt or
by polymer pouch or film roll. even UV light such as colour fading. Film
It’s fed through and heat sealed lamination done on hot or cold process and
which leaves polymer sheet used for products like menu and business
covered on both sides along cards.
with a border around the paper - Lamination: Usually made of PP with
edges. Laminating polymer a adhesive to make laminate stick to paper.
Debossing:
- Opposite of embossing and Varnishing:
produces an imprinted depression - A clear, non pigmented ink used on UV Varnishing:
which sits below surface of the pre-coated paper and boards to - Provides very smooth finish but
paper or card. Carried out the same enhance colours as well as providing ink must be completely dry before
way as embossing with 2 dies used protection against dirt, fingerprints finish is applied. Specific
to press and create the impression. and water. Gloss, matt, satin and machinery required will instantly
Used on greeting cards, invitations tinted inks available and all are cure the UV varnish to provide high
cards and packaging products which applied as a flood coat on product. quality finish, usually being high
shows the text as a depressed Suitable for pre-coated papers as gloss or matt and abrasion and
section of the paper or card. these will not soak up the ink and chemical resistant. It’s applied via
Foil blocking: swell or bleed colour. set of rollers and sheet is then
- The application of heat and pressure to metallic paper to create pressed under a UV light to cure.
areas of depth and texture to add aesthetic impacts to the product.
- Available in different types like metallic, gloss, matt, clear and
holographic and is used to enhance business cards and company
logos on letterheads or seals.
- Uses a special machine with heated die, like embossing process but Spot Varnishing:
the design is stamped onto the material through the foil and is - Applied in specific areas or spots rather
transferred as it’s pressed into the paper. than whole surface area. Rather than flood
- Foil sheet placed between die and the paper on which foil is coat the material, plate or set of plates
applied. Die pressed into the foil sheet and heat allows the foil to stick process on the surface and applied varnish
to the paper. to that spot. Can be used with both varnish
- It requires accuracy and consistency. If heat is too high or pressure and UV varnish.
is held for too long, foil will bubble and peel. If heat not high enough
or pressure is not held long enough, foil will not adhere to the paper
substrate.
Paper and board printing process: - Processes like flexography, offset lithography and digital printing uses
- Allows designers and manufactures to attract a a four-colour process. These colours would be cyan, magenta, yellow
consumer to a product of its feature as well as and key black. (CMYK). They are printed on top of each other is various
communicating information to the consumer. quantities on to the substrate surface to create the print colour
Colours, images and text provide aesthetic appeal. required.
Information like barcodes, safety warnings and - - For accurate and non-blurry print, colours must link up precisely with
product ingredients can be printed to each other. If one is slightly out of position, printed image will appear
communicate specific date to the consumer or blurred.
Screen printing:
retailer. - - A registration system is used to ensure final image is consistent and
- Simple and effectively used for small print
runs of items such as posters, display boards of high quality. The registration mark is a set of precision marks on the
and textile t-shirts. final print substrate, outside print area which is used as a quality
- Can be carried out in a workshop and can be control check to ensure all four colours have printed in the correct
achieved with minimal setup costs due to use place. The marks are often seen at the side of printed newspaper as a
of basic screens and printing inks. bar of CMYK colours.
- Substrate to be printed sits on screen print
machine base and upper section secures the Flexographic printing:
screen. Image to be printed is created on a - Least expensive of the printing processes due to simple operation and
screen or stencil which is a mesh held by a use of fast drying water-based inks.
frame and has open areas for ink to be passed - Used for newspapers, comics, catalogues, folding packaging cartons,
through. labels, carrier bags and continuous pattern products like wallpaper and gift
- Different screen required for each colour and wrap.
thus can increase time taken to produce print - Uses rolls of substrate rather than sheets, this allows large continuous
as well as the overall production of cost per print runs to be completed with ease.
item. Screen is placed over the substrate on - Uses flexible printing plates wrapped around rotating cylinders on web
the machine bed. press. Water-based or UV curable ink is fed from first ink roller to the anilox
- Pigmented printing ink used is placed on roller. Anilox roller makes ink a uniform thickness and transfers it to the
screen. A squeegee (flexible polymer blade, plate cylinder.
held in rigid angle) is then used to force ink to - Substrate moves between plate cylinder and impression cylinder.
flow through the mesh onto the substrate, for Impression cylinders applies pressure to plate cylinder to transfer image on
Offset lithographic printing:
- Extremely versatile process capable of producing one colour (single
roller), five colours (CMYK plus additional metallic colour on a five-roller
machine) and a ten-feature machine (CMYK, metallic, varnishing, spot
varnishing and duplex (both sides printed) on a ten-roller machine).
- Used for printing medium and long print runs on productions like books,
business forms and documentations, magazines, posters and packaging.
- Based on principle of oil and water not mixing. Lithographic plates
chemically treated to make image area oleophilic (absorbs oil easily) and
thus receptive to oil-based printing ink. Non-image are treated to be
hydrophilic.
- During printing, foundation (dampening) solution consisting of primarily
water, is applied in thin layer to printing plate cylinder and attracts to the
hydrophilic non-image areas of the printing plate.
- Ink then applied and is attracted to oleophilic image areas. Since ink and
water don’t mix, foundation solution prevents ink from entering non-image
The process –
areas of the plate.
- Printing substrate either sheet-fed or we roll-fed into machinery.
- Printing plates produced by computer to plate (CTP) process via laser
which etches image onto plate. Plate is then attached to the machine
and dampened by a damping roller.
- Ink applied to printing plate. Plate cylinder rotates onto a blanket roller
which is coated with ink. As substrate is fed through, image on the
blanket is transferred to the substrate to produce printed product.
Digital printing:
- A more popular and widely utilised resource for
printing products due to its speed and efficiency.
- Like large photocopiers and produce full colour,
highly detailed print runs with option of different
designs on each page, both front and reverse sides. Adding colour to moulding process:
- Apply colour in a similar way to laser printers, - Pigments are tiny particles that are added to the
where ink sits on top of the paper and is allowed to polymer to create a particular colour.
dry or be laminated. It can be added to the polymer during manufacturing
- Can be used for both low and high-volume print process like being added during the manufacture of the
runs and are very popular for printing promotional polymer stock form. Example being manufacturer
materials like business cards and flyers. buying pre-pigmented granules used in injection
- Ideal for mass customisation such as the printing of moulding from original granule manufacture.
specific names on drink cans. Is due to the fast- - Smart pigments like thermochromic or
drying inks like ones used in flexography. phosphorescent pigments can be added in the same
way thus, producing ready-finished smart polymer
products.
Polymer finishing: - Can also be added during other processes like lay-up
- Are self-finishing materials as they require process for producing laminated GRP. Ready-coloured
no additional finishing process once boat hulls be produced using pigment in gel coat.
manufactured. Surface textures are produced Polyester resin gel coat is bought in ready-to-use pre-
from the mould and addition of pigments pigmented colours and be applied to the mould before
during manufacture provides colour, making GRP matting is added during the process.
the polymer self colouring as well as self - Eliminates need to add individual pigments to resin
finishing. during lay-up process or carry out additional finishing
- Are considered finished and ready to use process post manufacture.
when manufacturing process is complete.
Surface finish from mould provides any
textures or product features.
Acrylic spray paints:
- Sometimes additional finishes are applied to enhance Over mouldings:
aesthetics of improve product function. - Is moulding second polymer over specific parts of a
- Acrylic paint a fast drying, water soluble paint that product.
becomes water resistant when dry and used on many - TPE is often used and over mouldings are primarily
polymer applications from model kit finishing to automative used to provide areas of grip or texture or to highlight
industry. different colours for different component parts on
- When used on polymers it can provide improved products.
aesthetics and additional protection against effect of UV
light and weathering as well as mass customisation,
particularly in automative industry.
- Allows products to be tailored to individual consumer’s Different ways of producing an over moulding:
preference like colour coding bumpers and wing mirrors on Two injection moulding moulds –
cars either to match body colour work or be stand-alone - One mould made for the product, and one for the grip
colour. areas.
- Consumers can choose a different colour option when - First product is injected and then placed into the second
buying the car and such parts are individually colour coded mould and the grip is injected on to the body of the product.
and sprayed with acrylic paints to produce the final Twin shot injection moulding –
component. - Uses an injection moulding machine with a mould
- Although polymers can be pigmented during manufacture, designed to produce product in one cycle.
it would be impractical and not cost effective for the - Mould has two sperate component cavities and can be
manufacture to keep changing granules on injection rotated through 180 so that they line up with twin injection
moulder to produce small numbers of differently coloured points.
components. - First, the moulded part created in first mould cavity. Then
opens slightly and rotates 180 to secondary position. Mould
closes again and second injection applied over mould.
- Twin shot injection moulding is a continuous cycle as the
over moulding is taking place, another is being made in first
mould cavity.
Metal finishing:
Electroplating:
- Most metals have an oxide layer which provides some
- Involves using a metal to coat a base metal which is
barrier against effect of the environment.
usually cheaper to provide both a protective layer and give
- Copper originally has bright reddish colour but
a greater aesthetics appeal like metal teapots are silver
overtime oxide layer or patina forms to protect it from
plated to provide increased aesthetic appeal as well as a
corrosion and environmental attacks.
barrier to corrosion from the contained liquid.
- Copper often seen on older buildings for roofing. E.g. St
- Kitchen taps are chromium plated to provide protection
Paul’s Cathedral roof.
against water and give a shiny hardware finish.
- Steels but no stainless steel are the exception to this
- Commonly used metals for electroplating includes silver,
rule as they have an oxide layer which is porous, allowing
gold, zinc, copper and tin.
moisture to penetrate the metal leading to rust.
- Porous oxide layers continue to allow moisture to
How it works –
penetrate leading to layers of crumbling rust seen on
- Product and donor material is placed in a container with
many unfinished steel products like gate posts of railings.
electrolyte solution. As D.C. is applied, the product attracts
- Finishes are applied to enhance their appearances and
the donor metal, and the product is electroplated.
help provide a barrier against corrosion.

Cellulose and acrylic paints:

- Paints provide colour and sometimes textured finish to metals while also providing a barrier against
corrosion.
- Primarily used on low-cost metals like steel.
- Surface of the metals must be cleaned and degreased prior to application of paint to ensure that
primer coat has a sound surface to grip to.
- Suitable primer coat that is often used is red oxide primer followed by an undercoat in similar colour
to the final topcoat.
- Paints either cellulose or acrylic can be applied via brush or spray.
- Are an increasing number of specialist paints on market providing texture or special graphic effects
such as pearlescence.
- Are some specialist paints that do not require a primer coat and are available in hammered or
Dip coating: Powder coating:
Polymer dip coating – - Product to be coated is initially statically
- Used on variety of products like wire coat hangers, kitchen charged with negative ions.
dish drainers, coat hooks, dishwasher racks and outdoor play - Thermoset polymer resin (positively
equipment furniture. charged) then sprayed via airgun.
- Metal product heated to approximately 230. Hot - Use of charge results in strong attraction
product/component part then dipped into tank of fine polymer between powder and the product.
powder which air blows through it in fluidisation bath. - It’s then baked in an oven where heat
- Fluidisation of plastic powder is aid to providing even coat on melts the powder over the product to give
the product. even coating that is more hardwearing than
- Retained heat from product allows polymer powder to melt painting.
all over the product and thus simply air cooled to allow coating - Domestic white goods like washing
Metal
to set dip coating –
evenly. machine, dishwashers and refrigerator
- Metals can be coated with other metals by dipping the product to be bodies are finished in this way.
coated into a tank of molten plating metal (donor metal). - Widely used for applying coloured finish to
- The dipping and plating is often used for inexpensive metals like low metal gates, fencing and railings.
carbon steel, primarily to provide barrier against corrosion.
- Before the dipping process, it must be cleaned and degreased.
Varnishing:
There are 2 types of plating: - Method that provides clear finish to protect the
Tin platting – metal and allow colour of base metal to show
- Pass sheet of stell through tank of molten tin at around 320. Is through.
often used to provide a noncorrosive coating to food cans. - Primarily used on more expensive metals such
as aluminium, brass and copper which all have
Zinc platting – good aesthetic properties.
- Also known as galvanising and involves dipping steel into - Metal should be polished to a shine and any
molten zinc at around 460. surface grease removed.
- Used for many industrial and agricultural applications such as - Varnish then applied vie spray or fine brush to
beams, gates and animal pens. Commonly used as first coat the metal with the protective layer.
protective layer in car bodies made from low carbon steel.
Sealants:
- Are tough polymer-based sealant coating that protect polished surface
from decay and tarnishing.
- Silicon-based clear sealants often used in automative industry as an
additional bodywork barrier against effects of weathering, road salts and
insect attack.
- Generally applied with a cloth or machine pad to produce a film that is
then allowed to cure for up to 15 mins and thus buffed with a cloth to a
shine.
Preservatives:
- Used for automative bodywork, freshly polished exhaust pipes and
- Provide temporary in-process or final post-processing, medium to long
metal trims.
term protection for metal surfaces.
- Often used on moulds and dies for preventing fingerprints showing on
surfaces, mirror atmospheric corrosion or condensation build up.
- Can be applied via wiping on with a cloth, spray or immersion.
- Silicon sealants can be classed as preservatives and can be used on
machine beds to provide smooth, snag-free surface to allow materials
be pushed across bed more easily and safely.
Anodising:
- A finishing process commonly used for aluminium products which
enhances natural oxide layer resulting in aluminium having increased
hardness and toughness.
- Also provide colour to product and is often used in outer casings of
torches, external hard drive covers and casings for mobile phones or digital
music players.
- Similar setup to electroplating process. Electric current passes through
sulphuric acid electrolyte solution from the part to be treated to negative
cathode. As current flows from part to be treated (positive anode) to the
negative, aluminium oxide layers build up on treated part, thus giving
anodised finish.
Cathodic protection:
- All metals have a natural voltage and when two different metals are joined together,
there is an electrical current.
- If water is present at join, it results in a formation of electrochemical cell and one of
the metals will corrode.
- Reaction is basically current flowing through the water from the anode (more actively
corroding metal) to the cathode (led actively corroding metal).
- e.g. two aluminium sheets held together with brass screws will form an
electrochemical cell in presence of rainwater. Electrical current will flow between anode
(aluminium) and brass (cathode) due to voltage difference between the metals and the
aluminium will start to corrode around the join.
- Metals are arranged in order of electrochemical activity in a saltwater solution.
- Metals at the top provide cathodic or sacrificial protection to the metals below them.
- A method used to control rate of corrosion by making the metal cathode of an
electrochemical cell.
- Anode of electrochemical cell is a sacrificial metal which is more easily corroded.
- Anode (sacrificial metal) corrodes while the base metal is protected.
2- methods
Main useofofCathodic
cathodicprotection:
protection is to protect steel structures buried in soil or
Impressed current –
immersed in water.
- Component to be protected is connected to electrical psu.
- Impressed D.C. flows from inert electrode through any liquid to the component to be
protected.
- E.g. buried pipeline received a D.C. from an electrode buried in the ground. Pipe becomes
the anode, and the electrode is the cathode. Cathode corrodes over time and such corrosion is
monitored so it remains intact.
Sacrificial anodes –
- More basic method as it uses a sacrificial metal to protect metal product of value.
- More electrochemical active metal is wrapped around or joined to less active metal to
provide resistance to corrosion.
- On large structures, sacrificial metal is monitored for signs of corrosions and replaced when
Wood finishing:
- Purpose of finishing wood is to
prevent wood from absorbing
moisture, against decay, insect
attacks and enhance the appearance
of the final product.
Natural wood can primarily decay in
2 ways:
-
1.6 Modern and Industrial Scales of
Practice:
1.7 Digital Design and
Manufacturing:
1.8 The Requirements of Product Design and
Development:
1.9 Health and
Safety:
1.10 Protecting Designs and
Intellectual Property:
1.11 Design for Manufacturing
Maintenance Repair and Disposal:
1.12 Feasibility Studies:
1.13 Enterprise and Marketing in the
Development of Products:
1.14 Design Communications: