Electromechanical energy

conversion
 Principles
• DC – machines • AC – machines
– Armature – Rotor
– Field – Stator
• Separately exited, • Synchronous vs.
series, compound asynchronous

Cylindrical vs. salient pole structures

Asynchronous vs. Synchronous AC -
machines
 Electromechanical energy conversion
principles
• FKU – Ch3
– 3.2 Energy balance
– 3.3 Energy in singly-excited magnetic field systems
– 3.7 Forces and torques in systems with permanent
magnets
 Dynamic equations (1)

I R (loss) K
+ Electromechanical
V0 λ,e energy conversion
system
_
M

d
Electrical equation: v0 iR 
dt f0
Flux linkage:  L( x)i
di dL( x) dx
v0 iR  L( x) i
dt dx dt
 Dynamic equations (2)

I R K
+ Electromechanical
V0 λ,e energy conversion
system
_
M

Spring: f K  K ( x  x0 )
dx
Damper: f D  B f0
dt 2
d x
Mass: f M  M 2
dt
dx d 2x
f fld  f K  f D  f M  f 0  f fld  K ( x  x0 )  B  M 2  f 0 0
dt dt
2
d x dx
f 0 (t )  M 2  B  K ( x  x0 )  f fld ( x, i )
dt dt
DC – Machines slides
 Separately excited DC-motor Ia
Power electronics, circuits, devices and
applications: MH Rashid If +
Ra,La
di f (t ) +
Field circuit: v f (t ) i f (t ) R  L f
dt
Vf Rf,Lf +
dia (t ) Va
Armature circuit: va (t ) ia (t ) R  La  eg Eg
dt _

Mechanical: d TL ω,Td _
Td  J  B  TL
dt J
In the steady
Td K t I f I a
state: (d/dt=0)
B
Pd Td 

E g  K v I f Td = developed torque
TL = load torque
Va I a R  K vI f Eg = back emf
Kv, Kt = voltage and torque constants
Va  I a Ra J = inertia
 Field weakening?
Kv I f B = viscous friction
Series DC-motor - DIY
Ia,If

+
Ra,La
,Rf,Lf
+
Va
Eg

TL ω,Td _
J

B
AC – Machines slides
 AC induction motor equivalent circuit (1)
Power electronics, circuits, devices and
applications: MH Rashid
Ir’ jsXr’ Is jXs Rs jXr’ Ir’
+ +
+ +
sEr Ns
Rr’ Vs Es Er Rr’/s
_ Nr _

_ Rotor circuit _ Stator and Rotor circuit

Is jXs Rs jXr Ir
+
+
Vs Vm=Es jXm Rm Rr/s
_

_ Per-phase equivalent circuit

AC induction motor equivalent circuit (2)
Is jXs Rs jXr Ir
+
+
Vs Vm=Es jXm Rm Rr/s
_

_ Equivalent circuit
Rr'  Rotor resistance
X r'  Rotor leakage reactance at supply frequency
Rr  Rotor resistance referred to stator
Xr  Rotor leakage reactance referred to stator
s Slip
Nr : Ns  Ratio
Xm  Magnetizing reactance
Rm  Iron losses
Er  Induced rms rotor phase voltage when speed is zero
 AC induction motor equivalent circuit (3)
2
Synch. speed: s 
p
Stator voltage: vs (t )  2Vs sin(t )

Flux linkage in rotor:

 (t )  cos(mt     s t ) (δ = relative position of rotor to stator field)
m

d
Induced voltage in
er (t )  N r Ir’ jsXr’
dt +
rotor:
 s 2 Er sin( s s t   )
sEr Rr’
 s  m
Slip: s
s
_ Rotor circuit
sEr
Rotor current: I r'  (Er is the rms voltage induced in the rotor)
Rr'  jsX r'
 AC induction motor equivalent circuit (4)
Is jXs Rs jXr Ir
+
+
Vs Vm=Es jXm Rm Rr/s
_

_ Equivalent circuit
Once rotor and stator currents are found from equivalent circuit the
performance parameters of the three-phase motor are as follows:
Rr
2
Stator copper loss:
2
Psu 3I Rs Gap power: Pg 3I r
s
s
Rotor copper loss: Pru 3I r2 Rr Developed power: Pd Pg  Pru Pg (1  s )
3Vm2 3Vs2 Pd Pg
Core loss: Pc   Developed torque: Td  
Rm Rm m s
AC induction motor equivalent circuit (5)

Input power: Pi 3Vs I s cos  m (θm is angle between Is and Vs – from

power factor)
Pc  Psu  Pg

Output power: Pi Pd  Pno load

Po
Efficiency: 
Pi

If Pg>>(Pc+Psu) and Pd>>Pno load:  1  s (Proof: DIY)

AC induction motor equivalent circuit (6)
Is jXs Rs jXr Ir
+
+
Vs Vm=Es jXm Rm Rr/s
_

_ Per-phase equivalent circuit

Remove Rm because it is very large and little current flows in it.

Move Xm to stator input because it is large and current is small compared to Is.

Ii jXs Rs I s= I r jXr
+

Vs jXm Rr/s

_ Approximate per-phase equivalent circuit

 AC induction motor equivalent circuit (7)
Ii jXs Rs I s= I r jXr
+

Vs jXm Rr/s

_ Approximate per-phase equivalent circuit

Zi
Input impedance  X m ( X s  X r )  jX m ( Rs  Rr / s )
Zi 
of the motor: Rs  Rr / s  j ( X m  X s  X r )

Rs  Rr / s X  Xs  Xr
Power factor  m   tan  1  tan  1 m
angle: Xs  Xr Rs  Rr / s

Vs
Rms rotor current: Ir 
( R
s
2
 Rr / s )  ( X s  X r ) 2
 1
2

3RrVs2
Developed torque: Td 

s s ( Rs  Rr / s ) 2  ( X s  X r ) 2 
 AC induction motor equivalent circuit (8)
3RrVs2
Starting torque (s=1): Ts 

 s ( Rs  Rr / s) 2  ( X s  X r ) 2 
Rr  dTd 
Slip for maximum sm  0 
torque: ( Rs
2
 ( X s  X r )2 
1
2 
 ds 

3Vs2
Breakdown torque (s=sm): Tmm 

2 s Rs  Rs2  ( X s  X r ) 2 
For motors bigger than 1kW, Rs is considered small compared
to the rest of the circuit impedances – alter all the equations (DIY)
AC induction motor equivalent circuit (9)
Use equations for startup torque and breakdown torque to
verify the torque-speed characteristics with increased rotor
resistance - DIY
Torque
Increasing rotor resistance

Speed
 Deep bar and double squirrel-cage rotors
Normal rotor bar Deep rotor bar Double squirrel cage
High slip

Low slip

• At low rotor frequencies the frequency of the induced rotor current is high
• Skin effect causes low penetration under these conditions
• Current only flows in only a portion of the deep rotor bar or the shallow rotor bar
of the double squirrel cage
• Rotor resistance increases
• Reduces starting current
• Rotor resistance varies as a function of rotor speed
Synchronous machines
 Synchronous machines
• Synchronous machine – rotor winding current (dc)
supplied from stationary frame via rotating contacts
(sliprings)
Armature winding
• Armature windings on stator magnetic axis
θ
• Rotor is driven using
a
Field winding
external mechanical x device
N-turn
• Ideal machine – assume . x armature
sinusoidal distribution a . Rotor -a winding

of flux in air gap

Stator Flux paths

Two-pole single-phase
synchronous machine
Synchronous machines

θa
π 2π

t
 Four-pole single-phase synchronous
machine
-a1

.
x
a1 N N a2
B . x
x

.
S
a1 -a1 a2 -a2

θa
π 2π 3π 4π -a2
 Cylindrical generator model (1)
• Rotor excitation produces air gap flux  per
pole revolving at constant angular velocity .
• Flux linkage of coil varies with position of rotor
mmf axis t (rad) from magnetic F r

axis of coil aa’. a F

n r
s

b’
• For N-turns flux linkage will c’ r 
t
r r’
be max (N) at t=0 and 
Fs
zero at t=/2. b c
m
a’
 Cylindrical generator model (2)
For distributed winding flux linkage a varies at cosine of t.
a = N cost
From Faraday - voltage induced in coil aa’:
ea = -d/dt = N sint
= Emaxsint
= Emaxcos(t - /2) where Emax= N = 2fN
RMS: E = 4.44fN
Actual RMS: E = 4.44KwfN with 0.85 < Kw < 0.95
because of slot distribution and emfs induced in slots not in phase
 Cylindrical generator model (3)
• Field for rotor induces 3 sinusoidal
voltages in armature displaced by 2/3 rad.
• Frequency of induced voltages depend on
rotor speed and number of poles of
machine

Frequency: f = nP/120 Hz
where n = rotor speed in rpm (synchronous speed)
and P = number of poles
 Cylindrical generator model (4)
• Assume synchronous operation with balanced armature currents
• Current in phase a lags generated emf ea by angle 

Instantaneous armature Space phasors/vectors representing mmf-

currents: waves:
ia = Imaxsin(t - ) Fa = Kia = Fmsin(t - )
ib = Imaxsin(t -  - 2/3) Fb = Kib = Fmsin(t -  - 2/3)
ic = Imaxsin(t -  - 4/3) Fc = Kic = Fmsin(t -  - 4/3)
with K proportional to number of armature
turns and winding type

Resultant mmf found by projecting the mmfs on line mn and

obtain in-phase and quadrature-phase components.
 Cylindrical generator model (5)

In-phase components:
F1 = Fmsin(t - )cos(t - )
+ Fmsin(t -  - 2/3)cos(t -  - 2/3)
+ Fmsin(t -  - 4/3)cos(t -  - 4/3)

Use: sin cos = sin2/2

F1 = Fm/2 [sin2(t - ) + sin2(t -  - 2/3) + sin2(t -  - 4/3)]
=0
 Cylindrical generator model (6)
Quadrature-phase components:
F2 = Fmsin(t - )sin(t - )
+ Fmsin(t -  - 2/3)sin(t -  - 2/3)
+ Fmsin(t -  - 4/3)sin(t -  - 4/3)

Use: sin2 = (1 - cos2)/2

F2 = Fm/2 [3 - cos2(t - ) + cos2(t -  - 2/3) + cos2(t -  - 4/3)]
= 3Fm/2
= Fs = resultant armature or stator mmf

Resultant armature mmf has constant amplitude perpendicular to

line mn
 Cylindrical generator model (7)
Fr

EMFs are time phasors

Fsr
MMFs are space vectors n

r t
r E
 Esr Ear E = no-load
 jXarIa
Fs V R aI a
generated
jXlIa voltage
m
Ia r = power angle

Combined phasor/vector diagram for one phase of a cylindrical rotor

generator
 Equivalent circuit
E = Esr + jXarIa
= V + [Ra + j(Xl + Xar)]Ia
= V + [Ra + jXs]Ia where Xs = (Xl +Xar) or synchronous reactance
 V + jXsIa because Ra can be neglected

Ia Zs = Ra + jXs
+
E + V
_ Load
Synchronous
_
machine equivalent
circuit
 Power factor control
• What does power factor mean?
• Analogy?
• Physical interpretation.
 Power factor control (1)
Synchronous generator phasor diagram
E

 ZsIa Lagging power factor load

 V

Ia

ZsIa Unity power factor load


Ia V

E
Ia

ZsIa Leading power factor load

V
 Power factor control (2)
Leading PF Generation of reactive power can
Ia3 E3 c
e f be controlled through rotor
jXs Ia3 excitation while maintaining
3 3
d constant real power!
V
Limit for reduction in excitation:
Unity PF  = 900 (Rotor will fall out of
e E2 c
f synch)
jXs Ia2
2
d cd = E1sin 1 = Xs Ia1cos1
Ia2 V

When a synchronous
Lagging PF generator is running at
e E1 c lagging power factor the
f
current it supplies lags its
1 jXs Ia1 terminal voltage. Thus it
d acts as a source of reactive
1 V
power, or magnetizing vars.
Ia1
Power factor control (3)
 Power factor control (4)
Power angle characteristics: E jXs Ia V

S3 = 3 V Ia*
Ia = [ |E| - |V| 0] = 3|E||V| -  - 3|V2| 
|Zs| |Zs| |Zs|

P3 = 3|E||V|cos( - ) - 3|V2| cos = 3|E||V|sin with Ra = 0, Zs = jXs

|Zs| |Zs| Xs and  = 900
Q3 = 3|E||V|sin( - ) - 3|V2| sin = 3|V| (|E|cos - |V|)  can be varied
|Zs| |Zs| Xs through mech
driving torque
 Power factor control (5)
Pmax(3) = 3|E||V| Steady-state / static stability limit
occurs at  = 900 and if exceeded
Xs machine loses synch and will be
disconnected by automatic equipment

 is normally far less than 900 and for small values cos = 1 with reactive power:
Q3  3|E||V| (|E| - |V|) so if |E| > |V| generator delivers react power to
Xs bus (Overexcited - normal operating cond.)

If |E| < |V| reactive power is supplied to generator

Thus the flow of reactive power is governed mainly by the difference in excitation
voltage |E| and bus bar voltage |V| and the excitation voltage for control of reactive
power is achieved by generator excitation system