CHAPTER SIX

SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

6.1. Introduction

• The past geological process and varied climatic events ensued Ethiopia to have varied soil and biological diversity.

• The formation and spatial variability of soils in Ethiopia is largely related to topographic and climatic factors,

parent material (rocks) and land use.

• Different parts of Ethiopian regions experiences. Likewise, the distribution of wildlife and natural vegetation in

Ethiopia and the Horn is controlled by many factors important among which are climate, soil types, drainage, etc.
• Natural vegetation's are vital for human beings in many ways.

• Plants can provide shelter, food, source of fuel, pasture and grazing, raw material for industries.

• Ethiopia possess unique and characteristic fauna and flora with a high level of endemicity.

• However, manmade as well as natural problems are threatening their availability and distribution.
 6.2. Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and Conservation

How does your local community identify and name soils? How sever is erosion in your locality? Do you know the causes for its

degradation?

6.2.1. Introduction

Soil

• soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral particles, organic matter and living organisms in dynamic equilibrium.

• This variability reflects primarily the parent material from which the soil was formed over very long periods of time and the

environment in which the soil has developed.

• It consists of weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter (5%), air (20- 30%) and water (20-30%).
 cont.

• Soil formation is a long-term process. It could take several thousands of years to form a single stratum of soil.

• As it is a complex mixture of several constituents, its formation is also more complex.

• The formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent material, climate, topography, living organism and time.

• Weathering disintegrates the inorganic substances (rocks) of soils. It is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface, by the action of

rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity.

• There are three types of weathering involving in soil formation. These are:
A. Mechanical (physical) weathering

 Physical disintegration causes decrease in size without appreciably altering composition.

 Differential stresses due to heating and cooling or expansion of ice break the rock.
 Abrasion (erosion by friction) due to water containing sediment or wind carrying debris is another type of physical
weathering.
B. Biological weathering
• The process of biological weathering involves the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals
and microbes.
• Roots of plant can exert pressure on rock.
• Although the process is physical, the pressure is exerted by a biological process (i.e., growing roots).
• Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s chemical composition, thus making it more
susceptible to weathering.
C. Chemical weathering

o Chemical weathering involves the modification of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the weathered material.

o A number of different processes can result in chemical weathering.

o The most common chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution.

o In most cases, the minerals in the parent materials are also found in the soils, which are formed from the disintegration and

decomposition of the rock.

o However, this is not true of alluvial soils, which are transported from one place to the other by agents like running water.

.
Cont.

Soils have two basic properties:

Physical properties
• Soil physical properties are influenced by composition and proportion of major soil
components.
• Properties such as texture, structure, porosity etc. are categorized under physical soil
properties.
• These properties affect air and water movement in the soil and the soil’s ability to function.
Chemical Properties
 Soil chemistry is the interaction of various chemical constituents that takes place among soil
particles and in the water retained by soil.
 Soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical conductivity, soil pH, etc.
 Soil chemical properties affect soil biological activity and indirectly the nutrient dynamics.
6.2.2. Major Soil Types in Ethiopia

 Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
 One can therefore, say that some of the soil divisions in the country are based on the geologic

structure.
 However, it should be born in mind that, there are soils formed due to long waited deposition of

sediments.
 FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of 1:2,000,000.
 Out of the major soils, 11 soil associations cover about 87.4 percent of the land area.
Cont.

The six major groups of soils in Ethiopia are discussed under the following points:

A. Environmental condition i.e. parent material, climatic conditions, topography, the way

they were formed.

B. Characteristic i.e. significant chemical and physical properties.

C. Agricultural suitability in relation to texture, structure, topography, moisture-storage

capacity, etc.

D. Occurrence: general location of the soil types.

1. Nitosols and Acrisols

Nitosols

- Nitosols develop on gently sloping ground.

- Their parent materials include trap series volcanics, volcanic ash, and even

metamorphic rocks.

- They are strongly weathered soils but far more productive than most other tropical

soils.

- They are basically associated with highlands with high rainfall and they were,

probably, formed on forest covered areas originally.

- Due to the high rainfall, there is considerable soil leaching which makes the nitosols to be poor in

soluble minerals like potassium, calcium etc.; and rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and aluminum.

- The reddish-brown color of these soils is because of high concentration of iron (ferric) oxides due to

leaching.

- But they are now widely found on cultivated areas and on mountain grasslands.

- Nitosols are dominantly found in western highlands (Wellega), southwestern highlands (Kaffa,

Illuababora), Southern highlands, Central highlands, and Eastern highlands.

Acrisols

• are one of the most inherently infertile soils of the tropics, becoming degraded chemically and
organically very quickly when utilized.

• Acrisols have very low resilience to degradation and moderate sensitivity to yield decline.

• In Ethiopia, it has lost most of the base nutrients and are characterized by low productive capacity.

• Acrisols are found along with nitosols mostly in some pockets of southwestern highlands of
Ethiopia where there is high rainfall.
2. Vertisols

 Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays when wet, and cracks

when dry.
 These soils are extremely difficult to manage (hence easily degraded), but has very high natural

chemical fertility.
 Vertisols mostly develop on volcanic plateau basalt, trachyte and pyroclastic materials,

sedimentary rocks, colluvial slopes and alluvial plains.

 The vertisols are also soils of highlands and moderate climates.

 In Ethiopia, they are commonly found in parts of Northwestern, Central and Southeastern

highlands (especially in Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe).

3. Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol

 These soils are mostly found in rugged topography and steep slopes.

 There is little evidence of pedogenic processes (soil forming processes). As a result, they are

young, shallow and coarse textured and so have low water holding capacity.
 In addition, they are found in areas of low rainfall.

 So, most of the areas covered by these soils have limited agricultural use.

 They are, in most cases, left under the natural plant cover and used for grazing.

 By and large, these soils are found in different parts of rugged and steep slopes of Central

Highlands, on the Rift Valley Escarpments and highlands in of western Hararghe.

 Regosol and Lithosols are also found in the Danakil and eastern Ogaden.
4. Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks

 These are soils of desert or dry steppe soils majorly available in arid and semiarid areas.

 Though the degree may vary, desert soils are characterized by high salt content and low

organic content, because of the scanty vegetation.

 Generally speaking, these soils have poor humus content and nitrogen, but are rich in

phosphorus and potash and can be very fertile if irrigated.

 Xerosols are soils of the deserts, has low organic content.

 These soils are extremely subjected to wind erosion and concentration of soluble salts.
cont.

 Yermosols are even drier and more problematic than Xerosols.

 Solanchaks are saline soils which develop in areas of high evaporation and capillary action.

 Badly managed irrigation schemes may turn soils into solonchaks.

 In Ethiopia, Xerosols are found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments, whereas the Yermosols and

Solonchaks cover the Ogaden and Afar plains.

 The Solonchaks are majorly located in salty plains of Afar.

5. Fluvisols

• Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial deposits.

• These soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine (lake) deposits.
• These are soils formed due to deposition of eroded materials from highlands.
• The deposition takes place in depressions, lower valleys and lowlands.
• Lower regions of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay and the plains of Akobo and Baro Rivers are
home for fluvivsols.
• Lakes region (main Ethiopian rift) is also characterized by fluvisols.
• Fluvisols are highly variable, but much prized for intensive agriculture because:
- they develop on flat ground, deposition sites,
- they are associated with rivers & ground water, making them important for large-scale
irrigation
- they are fertile & their fertility is always renewed as a result of deposition of new soil
materials.
6. Luvisols

• Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry seasons occur in
alternation.
• Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with nitosols.

• Luvisols have good chemical nutrients and they are among the best agricultural soils in the
tropics. So, they are intensively cultivated.
• However, when luvisols are found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat areas (waterlogged)
they are avoided and left for grazing.
• In Ethiopia, places with luvisols include Lake Tana area, parts of Northern, Central and
Eastern Highlands and Southern lowlands.
6.2.2. Soil Degradation

 Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of soil status resulting in a diminished

capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services.

 It could also be the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.
 It is a critical and growing global problem.
 It is a major concern for at least two reasons. First, soil degradation undermines the productive

capacity of an ecosystem. Second, it affects global climate through alterations in water and

energy balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements.
There are three major types of soil degradation. These are:

I. Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of the physical properties of soil. This includes:

A. Compaction

- densification of soil is caused by the elimination or reduction of structural pores.

- Soils prone to compaction are susceptible to accelerated runoff and erosion.

B. Soil erosion

- implies a three-phase process consisting of the detachment of individual soil particles, transportation & deposition.

- The continuous strike of soil surface by rain droplets considerably weakness the soil & makes susceptible to

erosion.
Cont.

- When sufficient amount of water accumulates, the soil will begin to move towards lower

slope until the erosive agent loses its energy.

- Erosion of topsoil by wind and water exceeds soil formation at an alarming rate.

- Obviously for countries like Ethiopia where agriculture plays the dominant role in the

economy and livelihood of the people, the causes, consequences and possible ways of

minimizing soil erosion require serious consideration.

- In Ethiopia, an estimated average of tons per hectare of soils is eroded annually.

ii. Biological Degradation

• Reduction in soil organic matter content,

• Decline in biomass carbon,
• Decrease in activity and diversity of soil fauna are ramifications of biological degradation.
• Because of prevailing high soil and air temperatures, biological degradation of soil is more severe in the tropics than
in the temperate zone.
• It can also be caused by indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals and soil pollutants.

iii. Chemical Degradation

• Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical degradation.
• In addition, excessive leaching of cat-ions in soils with low-activity clays causes a decline in soil pH and a reduction
in base saturation.
• Chemical degradation is also caused by the buildup of some toxic chemicals and an elemental imbalance that is
injurious to plant growth.
Causes of soil degradation

 Soil degradation may result from natural and human-induced causes.

 Topographic and climatic factors such as steep slopes, frequent floods and tornadoes, storms

and high-velocity wind, high intensity rains and drought in dry regions are among the

natural causes.

 Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation, overgrazing, indiscriminate use of

agrochemicals and lack of soil conservation practices, and over extraction of ground water

are some anthropogenic causes of soil degradation.

6.2.4. Soil Erosion Control Measures

• The aim of soil conservation is to reduce erosion to a level at which the

maximum sustainable level of agricultural production, grazing or recreational

activity can be obtained from an area of land without unacceptable

environmental damage.

• Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be prevented. But it can be reduced

to a maximum acceptable level or soil loss tolerance.

• We have two major soil erosion control mechanisms. These are:

Cont.

A. Biological Control measures

 These types of soil erosion control mechanisms include vegetative strips, plantation, and reforestation.

 Biological controls can prevent splash erosion, reduces the velocity of surface runoff, increases surface

roughness which reduces runoff and increases infiltration, and etc.

B. Physical control measures

 Physical measures are used to control the movement of water and wind over the soil surface.
 The major types of physical erosion control measures commonly applied in Ethiopia includes terracing,

check dams, gabion, trenches, contour ploughing, soil bunds etc.

6.3. Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
6.3.1. Introduction

• Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that develops with little or no human interference.

• It can also be seen as any original plant cover grown in an area.

• Its distribution on the surface of the earth is uneven majorly controlled by factors such as climate, soil types, drainage,

etc.

• However, to a large extent, temperature and precipitation affect the spatial distribution and the original plant cover of a

region.

• That is why, more than any other single element, the natural vegetation of an area becomes a very good indicator of the

climatic conditions.

• Natural vegetation are vital for human beings in many ways.

Cont.

•
Plants can provide shelter, food, source of fuel, pasture and grazing, raw material for industries, source of timber and

non-timber products.

• The other uses include moderating effect on local climate, as home of wild life, medicinal values, minimizing soil

erosion etc.

• The characteristics of Ethiopia's natural vegetation are to a large extent determined by elevation (and temperature) and

rainfall.

• In Ethiopia, since temperature is mostly controlled by elevation, the spatial distribution of natural vegetation in the

country is strongly correlated to it.

• Lowlands due to their low rainfall and high temperature have harsh environment and are characterized by xeromorphic
plants (plants which are adapted to drought and high temperatures).
• Highlands (up to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands and where there is adequate moisture a variety of forests
can be seen. Plants whose growth is limited by the low temperature characterize high altitude areas (mostly above
3000 m).
• Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of higher plants of which 10% are endemic. .
6.3.2. Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia

Taking altitude into consideration it is possible to broadly classify the vegetation belts of Ethiopia into the

following five groups.

1. Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region

2. Forest Region

3. Woodland Savannah Region

4. Steppe Region 5. Semi-desert Region

1. Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region
• Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afro-alpine habitats in Africa.
• This vegetation type, also known as high mountain vegetation is similar to the Alpine vegetation in
temperate regions.
• These ecosystems are found on mountains having an elevation ranging between 3,200 and 4,620 meters
above sea level.
Cont.

• The Afro-alpine habitat covers nearly 1.3% of the total landmass of Ethiopia.

• The Afro-alpine region is found at very high altitudes (4,000 – 4,620 m).

• Like any other landform in Ethiopian, the climate of Afro-alpine ecosystems is controlled by

latitude and altitude.

• The annul precipitation which ranges between 800 and 1,500 mm, is mostly in the form of

sleet or snow.

• Temperature records of c and below are widely experienced in these ecosystems.

• Soils in this ecosystem are mostly shallow and eroded.

Cont.

• The Bale and Semein mountains are typical examples of afro-alpine vegetation.

• Compared to the Afro-alpine, the Sub-afro-alpine region is found at a lower elevation, roughly between

3,300 and 4,000 meters.

• As a result, the plants in this region are adapted to somewhat less extreme environment than the Afro-

alpine.

• Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of tussock grasslands, scrub, scattered mosses and lichens

while the Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland, often degraded to scrub stages and also wet

grasslands.

• Lobelia rhynchopetalum (giberra) and Erica arborea (Asta) are some of the dominant species in the Afro-

alpine and Sub-afro alpine regions respectively.

2. Forest Region

• Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees that shield earth and support numerous life

forms.

• Not all forests are similar in terms of species composition, structure and physiognomy.

• In any geographical region, environmental factors such as climate, soil types, topography and elevation

determine the types of forests.

• In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations, 450 to 3,500m in humid parts and 2,300 to 3,300 m in

most arid parts.

• Moreover, forests are characterized by variation in mean annual rainfall that range between 200 and 2,200mm.
• These wide variations in rainfall and altitude result in two broad classification of forests: Highlands and
Lowland forests.
Cont.

 Highland forests include Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera (tid), Arundinaria

Alpina(kerkha), Podocarpus falcatus (zigba), Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana

(Weyra) forests;
 While Baphia are classified as lowland forests. Moreover, there are also Gallery (Riverine)

Forests. These are forests that stretch along the banks of the lower courses of rivers.
 Riverine forests are classified as lowland forests and are found in some places such as the banks

of Awash, Wabishebelle, Ghenale etc. Dominant species include Ficus sur (sholla) and different

kinds of acacia trees.

3. Woodland Savannah Region

• Like the forests, the woodland savannahs are also found in areas of wide altitudinal ranges

(250 to 2,300 m).

• Although the mean annual rainfall ranges between 200 and 1,400 mm, the large part of

this region is found at a lower elevation and in a drier environment.

• The plants in the woodland savannah are known for their xeromorphic characteristics like

shading of leaves during the dry season.

• Vegetation types with intermediate characteristics between savannahs and woodlands are

shrub lands and bush lands.

cont.

• Woodland savannah region can be broadly classified into three divisions:

i. Juniper procera (tid)
- is dominant species for both the Junipers Forests and Junipers Woodlands.
- The difference is in height: 3 - 45 meters tall in the forests and 10 -15 meters in the woodlands.

ii. Acacia woodlands

- are dominated by both trees and shrubs, which belong to the same genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia
etbaica(grar),Acacia mellifera (Konter).

iii. Mixed deciduous woodlands:

- As the name implies, most of the trees in mixed deciduous woodlands shed their leaves during the dry
season.
4. Steppe and Semi Desert Regions

 These are regions in the arid and semiarid parts of the country where the temperature is very high and the rainfall

very low.
 Both are found at low elevations, the steppe at elevations of 100 to 1,400 m above sea level and the semi-deserts

at 130 meters below sea level to 600 meters above sea level.
 The steppe gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm as compared to 50 to 300 mm for the semi desert areas.

 Growing period lasts up to 2 months for the steppe and a maximum of one month for the semi-deserts.
 Even though there is a variation in the degree of alkalinity and salinity; soils in both regions are generally
alkaline and saline.
 In these regions xerophytic (i.e. drought-resisting plants) are the dominant vegetation.
Cont.

 Xerophytic plants such as short shrubs, scattered tufts of grass species and a variety of acacias are

some of the examples.

 Where there are moist soils, rich vegetation of acacia and palm trees may be observed.
 Trees are normally restricted to fringes along watercourses.
6.3.3. Natural vegetation Degradation
 Over the past century, a rapid growth of the already dense Ethiopian population has led to
overexploitation of the land.
 In areas with settled agriculture, new land has been cleared at the expense of forests.

 Ethiopia's forest resources have been disappearing at an alarming rate.

 A century ago, forests covered about 40 percent of the total land area.

 For the last few decades, forests have been cleared for different reasons.
Cont.

 Major causes for the gradual disappearance of the natural vegetation in Ethiopia are:

- Clearing of forests for cultivation

- Timber exploitation practices

- Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel

- Extensions of coffee and tea production areas

- Overgrazing

- Expansion of settlements both rural and urban, and clearing for construction.
6.3.2. Natural Vegetation Conservation

 Conservation of biodiversity is protection and management of biodiversity so

as to maintain at least its current status and derive sustainable benefits for the

present and future generation.

 There is an urgent need of conservation of the ever-degrading biodiversity.

 There are three main approaches of biodiversity conservation:

Cont.

 Protection: through designation and management of some form of protected area. Protected

areas include sanctuaries, national parks, and community conservation areas.

 Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable harvesting of forest products to

provide a source of financial income

 Restoration or rehabilitation: is the process of assisting the recovery of a forest ecosystem

that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. This may involve the reestablishment of the

characteristics of a forest ecosystem, such as composition, structure, and function, which were

prevalent before its degradation.

6.4. Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia
6.4.1. Introduction

• Ethiopia is one of the few countries in the world, which possess unique and characteristic fauna with a

high level of endemicity.

• Existence of wide range of ecosystems endowed Ethiopia with great varieties of habitats contributing

for the occurrence of high faunal diversity.

• However, data on faunal resource of the country is as a whole is limited to mammals, birds, reptiles,

amphibians and a few groups of arthropods.

• Ethiopia has about 860 avian species (16 endemic species and two endemic genera), 279 species of

mammals (31 endemic species and six endemic genera), 201 species of reptiles (14 endemic species),

23 species of amphibians (23 endemic species), and 150 freshwater fish (6 endemic species).
Cont.

o A total of 279 mammalian species of which 31 are endemic are known to occur in Ethiopia including those that require

urgent conservation action i.e. Walia Ibex (Capra walie), Gelada Baboon (Theropithecus gelada), Mountain Nyala
(Tragelaphus buxtoni), Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), Starck’s Hare (Lepus starcki).
o Generally speaking, the main wild life concentrations in the country occur in the southern and western parts.

The wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into five major groups:

1. Common wild animals (those animals that are found in many parts of the country (e.g. hyenas, jackals)

2. Game (lowland) animal, (which include many herbivores like giraffes, wild asses, zebras etc. and carnivores like lions,
leopards, and cheetahs)

3. Tree animals or arboreal (which include monkeys, baboons)

4. A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes

5. Rare animals (gelada baboon and Semien fox) scattered in highlands; walia- ibex in the Semien Massifs, Nyala in the
Arsi Bale massifs).
6.4.2. Wildlife Conservation

• Wildlife plays an important role in several ways.

• The importance of wildlife can be categorized as ecological importance, economic importance, investigatory importance, conservation of biological

diversities etc.

• Wild animals can be used for:

- scientific and educational researches (valuable information for medical purposes and environmental studies)

- physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)

- promotion of tourism (economic value)

- its potential for domestication
- maintaining ecological balance
 Cont.

To prevent the destruction of wildlife a total area of nearly 100,000 square kilometers of national parks,

sanctuaries, community conservation areas, botanical gardens, wildlife reserves etc have been established in

different part of the country. Hence in Ethiopia there are:

• 21 major national parks
• 2 major wildlife sanctuaries,
• 3 wildlife reserves,
• 6 community conservation areas,
• 2 wildlife rescue centers,
• 22 controlled hunting areas,
• 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves
Cont.

• Even though the number and the predominant animals may vary, many of the national
parks in Ethiopia have different turnovers of animals.

• These include buffaloes, zebras, lions, elephants, ostriches, giraffes, oryx, African wild
asses, etc.
Table 6.2: National Parks of Ethiopia
Cont.

Some of the national parks are unique in their wild animals. E.g.

1. Abiyatta-Shalla lakes National Park:

• predominantly bird sanctuary.

• Important bird species include the flamingos and pelicans.

2. Omo, Mago, and Gambela National Parks:

• have hippopotamus and crocodiles in rivers and lakes.

3. Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks:

• have rare animals like Walia ibex, Semien fox, gelada baboon and Nyala.
6.4.3. Challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia

 Conservation of Ethiopia’s biodiversity and ecosystems is vital to ensure sustainable

development, to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change and to prevent the collapse

of life-supporting ecosystem services.

 Protected areas were created to protect the major biodiversity.
 However, it is a sad fact that these ecologically fundamental resources are usually undervalued

and are under threat from various dimensions.

Cont.

Here are some of the major challenges that Ethiopian protected areas are facing;
 Limited awareness on the importance of wild life

 Expansion of human settlement in protected areas.

 Conflict over resource

 Overgrazing (fodder and wood)

 Illegal wildlife trade

 Excessive hunting

 Tourism and recreational pressure

 Mining and construction material extraction

 Forest fire