Physics IV
Special Relativity 2
Introduction
Simultaneity
Lorentz Transformation
Time Dilation / Twins Paradox
Fitz-Gerald contraction
Relativistic Momentum and Mass
Mass-Energy Equivalence
Summary of Special Relativity
Introduction /Recap
Both Classical Mechanics and Special Relativity
describe the position and motion of an object in
terms of space and time. These reference frames are
called space-time frames (stf).
Space-time frames which obey Newton’s first law are
called inertial frames of reference (ifr)
Inertial frames refer to situations in which the
observer is either stationary or moving at constant
velocity
Frames in which the observer is accelerating are
called non-inertial frames. In this instance, special
relativity does not hold.
Recap 2
Postulate I: All laws of Physics are the same
in any inertial frame
Different inertial frames can be related to
each other using (x, t) co-ordinates such that
This is called Galilean Transformation (GT)
Revisiting Galilean Transformation
Space-Time Representation in the Galilean Transformation
Galilean Transformation of STF
Re-visiting Maxwell’s Equations
Gauss’ Law
Gauss ‘
Law II
Faraday’s
Law
Ampere –
Maxwell law
The Book of Genesis
Maxwell’s Equations
Gauss’ Law – A form of Ampere’s Law :
Charged particles create an electric field
Gauss’ Law for magnetism – a form of the
Biot – Savart Law: Magnetic field lines are
continuous. Magnetic monopoles do not exist
Faraday’s Law: Electric field lines are also
produced by changing magnetic fields
Ampere’-Maxwell’s Law: Changing electric
currents and fields create magnetic fields
Implications of Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell’s equations established the existence
of a new type of radiation called
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation were shown to be
transverse waves with E and B fields at right
angles to each other.
Electromagnetic radiation were shown to
travel at a specific speed c, which has a
specific value, that is determined by the
Transformation of E and B fields as a result of
accelerating (oscillating) electric charges.
Derivation of the Speed of Light
c = E/B
From Ampere’s Law: E = B / ε0.μ0.fλ
E/B = 1 / ε0.μ0.fλ but fλ =c
c 2
= 1/ε0.μ0
Therefore c = 1/ ε0.μ0 Where:
ε0 = 8.85 x10-12 C2/N.m2 - permittivity of free space
μ0 = 4π x 10-7 N.s2 / C2 - permeability of free space
Use dimensional analysis to confirm the units for c
Hence calculate the value for c
Light was shown to travel at this speed regardless of the inertial
reference frame of the observer. This observation is now called
the “the constancy of the speed of light”
In relativity events we usually refer to the speed of light
c = 300m/μs
Michelson-Morley Experiment
B
Light from a monochromatic source would pass through a plane
polarized glass that would allow only half the light through to
mirror A. Some of it would be deflected to mirror B. Light from
mirror A and B would arrive at the detector causing interference
effect and would be detected as bright and dark fringes. By
changing the orientation of the beam splitter, they hoped to
establish the orientation of the ether. No evidence of ether was
found
Einstein’s Adaptation
What Einstein's special theory of relativity says is
that to understand why the speed of light is constant,
we have to modify the way in which we translate the
observation in one inertial frame to that of another.
The Galilei transformation
is wrong. The correct relation is
This is called the Lorentz transformation.
The relation 1/(1-v2/c2) is denoted the symbol γ
From Galileo to Lorentz
Simultaneity
Although time always moves forwards, the time
interval between two events, and whether or not
the two events happen at the same time, depends
on the observer’s frame of reference. Simultaneity
is determined by when an event actually
happens, not when the event is seen or
observed
Experimenter A in a reference frame S stands at the origin,
looking in the positive x-direction. Experimenter B stands at x
= 900m looking in the negative x-direction. A firecracker
explodes somewhere between them. Experimenter B sees the
flash of light at t = 3.0μs. Experimenter A sees the flash at t =
4.0μs. Where and When did the explosion take place?
Simultaneity II
Past and Present
If the concept of before and after depends on
the observer, we must worry about what
happens to the concept of causality. What I
mean by causality is the concept
of cause and effect.
For an event A to be the cause of another
event B, then A must occur before B. But if
some observers think A happened before B,
while others think B happened before A,
won't there be a contradiction?
Space-Time Representation of Simultaneity
Space-time diagram showing how train and light bulb
are observed from different frames
Explanation
In the space-time graph shown above the trajectory of
light is always shown to be at 45° to the ct vertical and
forms a right angled triangle joining points A, B, C. To
find positions, lines are drawn parallel to the x, x’, x”
frames. Each point on these lines has the same value
corresponding vertical (ct, ct’ ct”) frames.
the frame fixed to the ground (x,t), A happens before B.
In the frame fixed to the train (x',t'), A and B happen at
the same time.
In the frame fixed to the sports car (x'',t''),
A happens after B.
This is the unavoidable consequence of
the experimental fact that the speed of light is the same
for all inertial observers.
Causality in Relativity
In ordinary sense, for an event A to be the
cause of event B, A must occur before B.
What happens if observers in different frames
cannot agree that A occurs before B?
Consider this scenario: An archer shoots an
arrow towards an apple a distance x away. A
space-time diagram is shown below:
Analyse the events for frames x’t’ and x”t”
Which came first, the arrow or the Apple
The Super Light Traveller
Classical mechanics do not place a limit on
the speeds of objects as long as large enough
forces can be exerted.
However as the example before shows, if one
could travel faster than the speed of light,
contradictions could occur, e.g:
Arrows could hit apples before they are
released.
Imagine if you travelled in a space craft that
can travel faster than light, you could leave
your house and return to find yourself getting
ready to leave!
Time Dilation
The principle of simultaneity demonstrates that time
is NOT absolute, but is relative to the frame of the
observer.
This also means that since the speed of light is
constant through all frames, clocks in different
inertial frames will be observed to run at different
rates.
The time dilation between two clocks in different
inertial frames is given by:
This means that clocks moving relative to an
observer are measured by the observer to run
slower than clocks that are at rest
Time Dilation
Show that time dilation δt
= δt0γ where δt0 is the time
measured on the frame of the
spaceship, and δt is the time on the
earth frame
Twins Paradox
Relativity tells us that for an object travelling at
speeds nearing the speed of light, clocks on board
appreciably beat much slower than clocks on the
ground.
The time dilation equation further predicts that at v
= c, time stands still. If one could travel faster than
the speed of light, one could make the clock run
backwards!
So, if two twins, one on earth and the other leaving
on a space craft were to be separated for a time.
Each would expect the other to be younger when
they are reunited, but there is no way that both can
be younger than each other.
How do you explain this paradox?
Fitz-Gerald Contraction
One consequence of the constancy of c and the
dependency of time on the inertial frame is the
fact that the length also contracts as the velocity
of the observer increases.
v = l0/δt; therefore, δt = l0 / v
δt0 = δt/γ Substituting,
L = v δt0 = vδt/γ
Therefore: l = l0 / γ
The length of an object is measured to be
shorter when it is moving relative to the
observer, than when it is at rest.
Length contraction
Supposing you wanted to measure the length
of a rail car.
An observer riding the train would record the
position of the front end of the train and the
position of the back end of the train "at the
same time" in the train frame and obtain the
length of the train, L', by taking the difference.
But the observer on the ground would record
the position of the front end of the train and
the position of the back end of the train "at the
same time" in the ground frame and obtain
what he thinks is the length of the train, L,
which is clearly shorter than L' !
Space-time depiction of length contraction
Lorentz Transformation
From Galilean Transformation:
V’ = V-Vs
For Lorentz Transformation this can be
modified thus:
V’ = V – Vs / 1-(V.Vs/c2)
Therefore V = V’+ Vs/ 1+(V’Vs/c 2)
Relativistic Momentum and Mass
Moving objects have momentum. So, for an
object of rest mass m0; the relativity mass will be
given by:
mrel = m0/(1-v2/c2) = m0γ - relative rest mass
Momentum = p = m0v/(1-v2/c2) = m0γv
Note
As the velocity of the object approaches c, the
momentum of the object tends towards infinity.
Since you cannot have infinite momentum, the
speed of light is a limiting speed. i.e. You cannot
travel faster than the speed of light.
As the velocity of the object approaches c, its
mass also increases to infinity. Since you cannot
Mass-Energy Equivalence
The crowning achievement of Einstein’s
Special Relativity Theory, was the
development of the mass-energy
equivalence : e = mc2
Relativistic energy is Erel = γm0c2 where m0 is the
rest mass of the particle.
But since v = c in γ, e0 = m0c2
This equation suggested for the first time that mass and
energy may be equivalent. The final test of this theory
came with the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima
– with devastating consequences.
Summary of Special Relativity
Galilean Transformation Lorentz Transformation
(GT) (LT)
x = x’ + vt γ = (1 - v2.c-2)- 1/2
relativistic
adjustment
x’ = x – vt (Where x’ is in the Δt = Δt0 γ (where t0 is time in the
alternative inertial frame of “earth” frame) = time dilation
reference)
vx = v’ + v (where v = frame L = L0 γ -1 (Where L0 is the
velocity) length at rest) = Length
contraction
v’ = vx – v (where v = frame mrel = m0 γ (Where m0 is the rest
velocity) mass) = relativistic mass increase
p = m0v γ (where m0 is the
rest mass. ) = relativistic
momentum
e0 = m0c2 (where m0 is the
rest mass) = mass-energy
Sample Tutorial Problems
1. A meteorite particle has a rest mass of
10kg. What is the relativistic mass of this
particle if it is travelling through space at a
speed of 0.8c
2. A space craft using its hyper-drive, is
observed to be travelling a distance of 4
light years in 5 years by an observer on the
craft. How many years does it take to travel
the same distance, as observed by a person
on earth?
More Challenging Problems
3. An experimenter in reference frame S,
stands at the origin , looking in the positive x-
direction. At time t = 3.0 µs, she sees
firecracker 1 explode at x = 600m. A short
time later, at t = 5µs, she sees firecracker two
explode at x = 1200m. Are the two explosions
simultaneous? If not, which fire cracker
exploded first?
4. Saturn is 1.43 x1012 m from the sun. A rocket
travels from the sun to Saturn at a constant
speed of 0.9c, relative to the solar system.
How long does the journey take, as measured
by an experimenter on earth? As measured by
an astronaut on the rocket.
5. In the last question, what is the distance
between the sun and Saturn in the Rocket’s
reference frame?
6. An 8.0m long bus drives past a lamp post at
30ms-1. By how much is its length contracted?
7. a) A rocket flies past the earth at 0.90c. As it
goes, it fires a bullet in the forward direction
at 0.95c with respect to the rocket. What is
the bullet’s speed with respect to the earth?
