2.1.3.
3 Hydraulic measurements Flow, Mass Flow, Level, Pressure, Conductivity, pH-Sensor, Viscosity, Humidity,
special requirements: intrinsic safety = explosive environment, sea floor = high pressure
Industrial Automation 1/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Level measurement
pulsed laser
load cell
pulsed microwave nuclear ultrasonic (40-60 kHz) low power ultrasonic
F = mg
detector row
see Control Engineering, Aug 2003 Industrial Automation 2/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Flow measurement Distinguish: volumetric flow ( m3/s) mass flow: (kg / s) identical when the density of the liquid is constant main methods: -floater -turbine -pressure difference -vortex -temperature gradient -ultrasonic -electrodynamics
Industrial Automation
3/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Flow velocity measurement: differential pressure membrane fluid of viscosity r
p2 p1 v
piezo-electric sensor
occultation
(Verengung)
occultation (Blende)
p2 - p1 =
r v2
(Bernoulli effect)
the flow velocity is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference
Industrial Automation 4/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Flow measurement
Other means: Magnetic-dynamic Coriolis Ultra-sound
Industrial Automation
5/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Flow measurement in a plant
Industrial Automation
6/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Pressure Detectors
Absolute pressure - psia
Gage pressure referenced to atmospheric (approx 14.7 psia) - psig
Differential pressure difference between two pressures - psid
Types of Pressure Measurements
Industrial Automation 8/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Types of Pressure Sensing Elements
Capacitance Pressure Transducer Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer
Strain gage pressure transducer
Industrial Automation 9/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Bellow-Type Detectors
System pressure is applied to the internal volume of a bellows and mechanical linkage assembly.
As pressure changes, the bellows and linkage assembly move to cause an electrical signal to be produced or to cause a gauge pointer to move.
Industrial Automation
10/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Bourdon Tube-Type Detectors
System pressure is applied to the inside of a slightly flattened arcshaped tube. As pressure increases, the tube tends to restore to its original round cross-section. This change in cross-section causes the tube to straighten.
Since the tube is permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the tube traces a curve that is the result of the change in angular position with respect to the center. The tip movement can then be used to position a pointer or to develop an electrical signal.
Industrial Automation 11/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Pressure Detector Functional Uses
Pressure detectors perform the following basic functions: - Indication - Alarm - Control If a pressure detector becomes inoperative: - A spare detector element may be used (if installed). - A local mechanical pressure gauge can be used (if available). - A precision pressure gauge may be installed in the system. Environmental concerns: - Atmospheric pressure - Ambient temperature - Humidity
Industrial Automation 12/52 2.1 Instrumentation
PRESSURE DETECTION CIRCUITRY
Resistance-Type Transducers
A strain gauge measures the pressure applied to a fine wire. The fine wire is usually arranged in the form of a grid. The pressure change causes a resistance change due to the distortion of the wire. This change in resistance is used as the variable resistance in a bridge circuit that provides an electrical signal for indication of pressure.
Industrial Automation
13/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Industrial Automation
14/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Re: Strain gauge &Wheatstone Bridge
Definition
Industrial Automation
15/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Definition of Strain
Strain is a dimension-less ratio= delta length / length Strain is described with units of strain Usually we measure microstrains a microstrain is where the ratio of change in length to length is .000001 In working with microstrains, amplification of strain gage values is very important Because hi gain amplification is being used, low pass filtering is important to remove noise
Industrial Automation 16/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Bonded Metal Strain Gage
As the material to which the gage is bonded increases in length (tension), the cross sectional area of the wire in the strain gage decreases. As area decreases, the resistance increases because resistance is inversely proportional to wire cross sectional area
Industrial Automation 17/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Wheatstone Bridge
Industrial Automation
18/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Quarter Bridge 1 active arm
Industrial Automation
19/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Half Bridge 2 active arms
Industrial Automation
20/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Full Bridge 4 active arms
Industrial Automation
21/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Typical Implementation
Industrial Automation
22/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Load Cells Linear Force
Full bridge strain gage to measure strain in material due to applied force
Industrial Automation
23/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Measuring Linear Position
Direct change to an electrical element Moving a wiper/contact to change the resistance in a variable resistor (potentiometer) Moving a core within an electromagnet (Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)) Sending a signal and measuring time of flight or time to receive reflection Synchronized reception of time of flight Global Positioning System Reflected radio waves RADAR (radio detection and ranging) Reflected sound waves SONAR Reflected LASER light LIDAR and reflectometery Shadowing Physical object blocks transmission of a localized sensor Infrared Visible Light (Linear Position Encoder)
Laser
Magnetic Note: with a gear and a gear track, you can convert a linear motion into rotary motion Industrial Automation 24/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Position Transducer Price vs Performance Curve
Industrial Automation
25/52
2.1 Instrumentation
String Potentiometer
From www.spaceagecontrol.com
Industrial Automation
26/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Typically core is attached by a shaft to the object whose position is being measured LVDT core centered no signal
Core left magnitude is a function of position in same phase as Ein
Core right magnitude is a function of position in opposite phase as Ein
Industrial Automation
27/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Time of Flight One Way
A signal (or a string of signals) is sent at synchronized time. By determining time of flight and dividing by the speed of transmission (speed of light for radio, speed of sound for audio), you can determine the range Classic example is determining the distance in miles to lightning by measuring the difference between the arrival of the light and the sound and dividing by 5 In GPS, we receive a signal along with timing and he location information for the satellites so we can determine location by time of flight By receiving signals from 3 satellites we can determine location on surface of the earth. By receiving signals from 4 satellites we can determine position and altitude
Sat 1 Range
Sat 2 Range GPS Location is where three range circles intersect Sat 3 Range
Industrial Automation
28/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Time of Flight - Two way
Two way position determination involves generating a signal and transmitting it Signal is either reflected back off the target (passive) or received and transmitted back by a transponder on the target (interrogated-active) When the signal is received back at the original transmitting station, the time is divided by two to generate a time of flight measurement
A person shouting down a well and hearing an echo back is a primitive two way time of flight ranging system
RADAR is Radio Detection and Ranging using radio frequency waves as the signal SONAR is Sound Navigation and Ranging active sonar generates a ping which is reflected back by objects and can be used to determine range LIDAR is Light Detection and Ranging and uses a laser beam A home laser rangefinder is a primitive LIDAR
Graphic from howstuffworks.com
Industrial Automation
29/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Using Blockage - Linear Position Encoder
Light sensor(s) that detect the pattern The pattern is typically a Gray code (only one bit difference between adjacent measurements) Gray code decoded into a distance Drawing from Alexander Khazan, Transducers and their elements courtesy of www.ni.com Sensors Fundamentals
Industrial Automation 30/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Angular Position Synchro-Resolver
WW2 era technology still used in applications today where ac power is readily available
From www.controlsciences.com
Rotor of resolver follows rotor of synchro
Industrial Automation
31/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Optical Position Encoder Angular Position
Industrial Automation
32/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Zero location
Incremental Position Encoder from Industrial Electronics by Thomas Kissell located at www.ni.com
Industrial Automation
33/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Quadrature Encoder using two tracks, 90 degrees out of phase we can determine direction of motion by the order in which the tracks sequence
Industrial Automation
34/52
2.1 Instrumentation
disk
Early optical encoders when these were started up, they had to be rotated to find the zero location these are called incremental encoders
Index (or zero) mark
Pulse Train Output Graphics from Industrial Electronics by Thomas Kissell located at www.ni.com www.ni.com
Industrial Automation
35/52
2.1 Instrumentation
More modern encoder always output current position based on encoded bit pattern in the wheel these are called absolute position encoders position is always determined at power up Hall effect switches are often used to resolve location
from Industrial Electronics by Thomas Kissell located at www.ni.com
Industrial Automation
36/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Measurement of Linear Velocity
Direct using Doppler By converting to rotary motion and determining angular rate tachometer either by counting position pulses in a fixed time or by using a generator to generate an analog voltage proportional to rotation
By differentiating a high accuracy estimate of position enhances noise
Industrial Automation
37/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Doppler Determination of Linear Velocity
Doppler effect from howstuffworks.com
By using a counter to determine frequency, we can compute range rate the rate by which something is moving towards us or away from us by
freqrcvr freqsource (1 1 speed of transmiss * ion dS dt
Speed of transmission is speed of light for rf of laser, speed of sound for sound or pressure waves By using three observing stations we can determine the velocity in a two dimensional orthogonal system (x,y).
Industrial Automation 38/52 2.1 Instrumentation
Angular Rate determination
Of a shaft Count pulses to determine rate from a position encoder Generate a voltage by using a dc motor as a generator to generate a voltage proportional to speed or rotation Of a body determine rotation rate use a gyro
Mechanical gyroscope
Ring laser gyroscope Fiber optic gyroscope Solid state gyroscopes (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems MEMS)
Servotek DC Motor Generator Tachometer
Industrial Automation
39/52
2.1 Instrumentation
Magnetic Rotary Encoder Angular Rate
Industrial Automation
40/52
2.1 Instrumentation
