ZOO 102 – INTRODUCTORY ZOOLOGY

PHYLUM CHORDATA
(CLASS AMPHIBIA AND CLASS REPTILIA)

BY
DR NWADIKE C. C.
 INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION is a system in which information on organisms are
gathered, documented and stored in an orderly manner for easy reference.

The scientific classification system is divided into seven (7) major groups;
 Kingdom
 Phylum or division
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species.
 Animal Kingdom Classification

All living organisms can be placed in one of the five

different animal kingdom below;
1. Animalia
2. Plantae
3. Fungi
4. Protista
5. Monera (Eubacteria)
 Animal Phylum
The animal kingdom contains more than two million known species.
The animal kingdom contains these 9 (nine) phyla:
 Mollusca
 Porifera
 Cnidaria
 Platyhelminthes
 Nematode
 Annelida
 Arthropoda
 Echinodermata
 Chordata
*(Hemichordata)
 PHYLUM CHORDATA
Chordates belong to the animal phylum Chordata and include
the vertebrates, together with several closely related
invertebrates- Urochordates and Cephalochordates.

Until recently, an invertebrate group, the Hemichordata was

placed under the phylum Chordata but is now considered as a
separate phylum.
 The three Chordate subphyla:
Urochordata
Cephalochordata
Vertebrata
Have certain primary features namely;
i. A notochord or a vertebral column
(a dorsal fairly rigid rod of vacuolated cells)
ii. A hollow dorsal nerve cord or spinal cord
iii. Pharyngeal slits
vi. A post-anal tail
Some of these characteristics may not be retained throughout the life of
an animal but must be present or manifest in an individual at some time
during its development.
 Basic/primary features of Chordates
1. Notochord :
 This is a stiff but flexible rod (made up of tightly packed vacuolated
cell held in position by a firm sheath.)
 It lies along the inside of the dorsal side of the body and provides
structural support.
 In modern Chordates especially the vertebrates, the notochord exists
only during development but is modified or replaced in the course of
development into a bony vertebral column known as the Spine or
backbone.
 In the entire aquatic species, the notochord or vertebral column
helps the animal to swim by flexing its tails.
2. Dorsal Nerve Cord
This is a Fluid-filled tube of nerve tissue that runs the
length of the animal, dorsal to the notochord.
It is present in Chordates throughout embryonic and
adult life.
In fish and other vertebrates, the nerve cord is
represented by the spinal cord, which is the main
communication line of the nervous system.
3. Pharyngeal gill slits
The pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth down toward
the stomach.

The pharyngeal gill slits are pairs of openings through the pharynx.
The slits serve as water exit holes through which water, drawn through the pharynx
is passed out without it continuing down into the rest of the gastrointestinal tract.

Invertebrate Chordates use them to trap food particles in the water where the
animals live.
In fishes, the gill slits have developed into true gills for breathing.

In reptiles, birds and mammals (including humans), the gill slits are vestiges (gone
or no longer functional), occurring only in the embryonic stage.
4. Muscular post-anal tail
It is that part of the animal that extends backward
behind the anus.

The notochord, nerve cord, and the myotomes

(muscles that are supplied by a nerve of the spine)
extend to the tail.
The tail is found at some time during a chordate’s
development and may be prominent or vestigial.
 OTHER FEATURES OF CHORDATES;
5. Metameric musculature (blocks of muscle)
These are muscle blocks on either side of the body that surround the
notochord and nerve cord.

6. Triploblastic coelomates
The body structure is made up of three germ layers ( layers of embryonic
cells) and a well- developed coelom (body cavity).

7. Bilateral symmetry:
The body of chordate is bilaterally symmetrical, that is, if the body is divided
in two halves through a central axis; each side is a mirror of the order.
8. Ventral Heart
The heart of chordates is ventrally located with dorsal
and ventral blood vessels and on closed blood system .
9. Limbs
Chordates generally have four appendages that are in the
form of legs, arms, wings or fins.
10. Endoskeleton
Chordates have an inner skeleton
11. Digestive system
Chordates have a digestive system of stomach and
intestine. Food is taken in through the mouth which may have a
tongue and teeth (they eat plants and animals).
12. Nervous System
Chordates have a brain and nervous system
13. Respiration
Chordates take in oxygen and get rid of
carbondioxide
14. Reproduction
Chordates reproduce sexually.
15. Excretion
Chordates get rid of water through kidneys and
intestine.
BODY OUTLINE OF CHORDATES
CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDATES
THE PHYLUM CHORDATA CONSISTS OF FOUR SUBPHYLA:
1. Subphylum Urochordata- represented by tunicates (commonly known as
Tail chordates)
2. Subphylum Cephalochordata - represented by Lancelets: also known as
Head Chordates.
3. Subphylum Vertebrata (Backbone Chordates) – represented by the
Vertebrates. Chordates with vertebrates of backbone.
4. Subphylum Hemichordata – are the most primitive or Half Chordates and
are currently considered as separate phylum by many authors.{because they
posses partial or not well developed chordate features and no post-anal tail.}
The hemichordates, urochordates and cephalochordates form the invertebrates
component of the phylum chordates.
***Each of the Subphyla is comprised of classes & orders.
 General classification
1. Subphylum Hemichordates (half chordates)
Class Enteropneusta (acorn worms)
Class planctosphacroidea (Extinct)
Class pterobranchia (Cephalodiscus)
2. Subphylum Urochordates (Tail Chordates)
Class Ascidiacea (Sea Squirts)
Class Thaliacea (Salps)
Class Larvacea (Appendicularia)
3. Subphylum Cephalochordata (Head Chordates)
Class Leptocardii (Leptocardia)

Note: These three invertebrate subphyla (Hemichordata, Urochordata and

Cephalochordata) are collectively called PROTOCHORDATES.
This is because they are considered to be the ancestral stock of the Chordates.
In other words, they represent the primitive from of chordates.
4. Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata)
Superclass Agnata (Jawless fish)
Class Cyclostomata (Lampreys & Hagfishes)
Class Ostracodermi (extinct)

Superclass Gnathostomata (Jawed Vertebrates)

Class Placodermi (armoured fishes, extinct)
Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fish)
Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)
Class Amphibia (Amphibians)
Class Reptilia (Reptiles)
Class Aves (Birds)
Class Mammalia (Mammals)
 Superclass of the subphylum vertebrata.

The subphylum vertebrata has two major super classes;

1. Agnatha (Jawless vertebrates) - E.g. Lampreys, hagfishes.
2. Gnathostomata (Jawed vertebrates) - E.g. Fish, toad, lizards, birds, man.
**** The Gnathostomata are grouped into 2 based on the diversity of their habitat, Form
and Structure
These include;
i. Pisces (fishes) – Placodermi, Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.
ii. Tetrapods ( Animal with four limbs) – Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
The vast majority of Chordates have a skull enclosing sensory organs such as the brain,
eyes, inner ear etc. and hence the name CRANIATE.
The amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are referred to as TETRAPODS on
account of having four limbs.
The reptiles and mammals are referred to as AMNIOTIA because they have an
amniotic membrane.
 SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA

Vertebrates are animals with vertebral column made of either cartilaginous or bony tissue.
They posses the characteristics of the chordates and are the most common chordates.

Chordates are the most developed of the animal kingdom and has successfully inhabited
all the different kinds of habitat in the universe.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTEBRATES (Basic Features)
1. Bony\cartilaginous endoskeleton (vertebrate/backbone) for support and locomotion.
2. A complex brain encased by a cranium, which protects and supports it.
3. Notochord is not present in adult, it is replaced by spine.
3. Has well- developed head ( cephalization) with advanced nervous and sensory
structures.
4. Most have 2 pairs of appendages – one pair of pectoral and one pair of pelvic
appendages.
 Other features
5. Has true body cavity – the coelom
6. Males and females are separates and distinct.
7. Gill slits are few in number when present
8. Possession of vertebral column from which its name is derived.
9. Has a well developed ventral heart with 2-4 chambers.
10. Has a closed circulatory system with hemoglobin as the respiratory pigment in
the blood.
11. It has variety of feeding strategies - Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, filter
feeders, parasitic.
12. They live in a variety of habitats including freshwater, saltwater, terrestrial.
13. Has true kidneys
14. Has efficient respiratory system of gills or lungs
15. Possess specialized epidermal structures/ exoskeleton in the form of hair, fur,
spines, feathers, scales (for protection and insulation of the body).
DIAGRAM OF VERTEBRATE
EMBRYOS
 AMPHIBIA
Amphibians are a class of vertebrates with four limbs. The word
amphibian is a greek word meaning “Dual life” (amphi- meaning
both; bios – meaning life).
*** This implies that they live in two worlds (dual habitation):
the aquatic world ( of their fish ancestors) and the terrestrial
world that they invaded. They are able to live in both water and
on land.
Amphibians typically reproduce in freshwater and are not
found in the sea or brackish water with the exception of the
crab-eating frog which is native to south- eastern Asia, Taiwan,
China and Philippines. It can survive in seawater for a brief
period and in brackish water for extended period of time.
 ORIGIN OF AMPHIBIANS
Amphibians evolved around 395 million years ago during the
Devonian period from Lobe-finned fish named
“Sarcopterygians (class Sarcopterygi, “ flesh fins”) within
which the Coelacanth and the current lungfish are found.
**** They are believed to be the first animals to move from the
aquatic environment to conquer the terrestrial environment.
Movement onto land
Amphibians evolved to move from water to land and this is very
important in their evolution.
To move successfully onto land, they had to develop features
that would help them cope with the harsh conditions on land.
 The successful invasion of land by amphibians
involved a number of major innovations:

1. LEGS- (although secondarily lost in some species). This was necessary to

support the body's weight as well as to allow movement from place to place.
2. LUNGS – This was necessary to help them survive on land as gills are used
to survive in water.
3. MORE COMPLEX AND DIVIDED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - This is
to help deliver the greater amount of oxygen required by walking muscles.
4. Reproduction had to be carried out in water until methods evolved to prevent
eggs from drying out.
5. Most importantly, a system had to be developed to prevent the body itself
from drying out – Moist Skin.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASS AMPHIBIA

1. They are cold-blooded or exothermic animals, that is,

they do not have a constant body temperature but instead
take up the temperature of their environment.
2. They have a three- chambered heart consisting of two
atria and one ventricle.
3. It has no external ear.
4. They have four limbs ( 2 forelimb and 2 hind limb).
Webbed feet are often present with no true nails or claws.
5. They have complex life cycles ( eggs, tadpole/juveniles,
adults through metamorphosis)
6. Posses non- amniotic eggs. They lack the amniotic membrane
that surrounds the embryo.
7. Eggs lack a shell but surrounded by several gelatinous layers
8. They possess gills at the larval stage and lungs at the adult stage.
In many amphibians, the skin is also important in gas exchange.
9. They usually posses large mouth with small teeth in upper or
both jaws; two nostrils open into the anterior part of the mouth
cavity.
10. Respiration is accomplished either separately or in combination
by lungs, skin and gills.
11. Amphibians have separate sexes and fertilization is external
in most frogs and toads but internal in most salamanders.
12. The skin is smooth, thin, hairless, porous and rarely scaled
containing both mucus glands and poison glands.
 MORPHOLOGY
 Most amphibians lay eggs that have a gelatinous coating
which swells when it comes in contact with water.
In frog and toad, the larvae that hatch from the eggs has a
large head with a dorsally flattened tail and are known as
tadpoles.
They are vegetarians and breathe with gills. They have no
limbs at first , the back limb thrusting through their skin at a
later stage followed by the fore limbs after which the limb is
absorbed.
After this metamorphosis, the juvenile look like miniature
versions of the adults.
The moist, scale-less skin of amphibians absorb water and oxygen from the
surrounding atmosphere, but that also makes them vulnerable to
dehydration. Without moist conditions, their skin dries out and they die.
That explain why amphibians are most often found near ponds,
marshlands, swamps, and other areas where moisture is available.
Some amphibians become inactive when conditions are unfavorable
for survival and this period of inactivity is called estivation. Activity
resumes when favorable conditions return.
The thin skin of amphibians contains many glands; among them is the
poison gland that protects certain species against predators.
Some amphibians protect themselves from enemies by changing color
to blend in with their surroundings, that is, they camouflage.
 LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of most amphibians begins in water when the
female lays eggs that are fertilized outside her body.
The eggs hatch into larvae (known as tadpole) that breath
through extend gills.
The larvae grow flat tails and feed on vegetation.
During a process called metamorphosis, physical changes
occur and external gills give way to lungs.
The tadpoles also change from plant-eating (herbivores) to
meat eaters (carnivores) animals.
Amphibians usually reach full adulthood at 3-4 years.
 CLASSIFICATION
The class amphibia is comprised of three Orders
(more than 6,000 species) which includes;
1. Order Anura (Salientia) eg. frogs and
toads
2. Order Apoda (Gymnophiona) eg. Caecilians
3. Order Urodella (caudata) eg newts and salamanders
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORDER ANURA (AMPHIBIANS WITHOUT TAIL)

Largest group living amphibians, comprising about 3,000 species.

Consist of most common amphibian seen in our environment such as frogs and toads.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Head and trunk are fused.
2. Lack true tail in the adult stage.
3. Posses two pairs of limbs
4. Hind limbs are longer than front limbs; and by this they are well adapted for hopping,
jumping and swimming.
5. They posses large mouth and lungs.
6. They live in aquatic environment, although some are well adapted to drier habitats.
7. Larval forms are called tadpoles.
Fertilization is external and eggs are laid in water.
9. Adults lack time teeth and are usually herbivorous.
 FROGS(MBALA) AND TOADS (AWO)
Differ;
1. Toads have drier skin that is warty (which enables them
adapt to driver habitat) when compared to smooth skin of
frogs.
2. Frogs Have longer and well developed webbed feet ( that
facilitate movement in water than toads).
3. Toads are seen hopping around our surroundings especially
during the rains but frogs are seen in or near water.
4. Toads are more tolerant to dry conditions than frogs which
are often in water or near water.
 SIMILARITIES

1.Both live mainly on a diet of insect

and other in vertebrates.
2.The largest frogs and toads also eat
small mammals, birds fish and
other amphibians.
DIAGRAM OF A TOAD
DIAGRAM OF A FROG
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORDER URODELLA
(EVIDENT/ VISIBLE TAIL)
 Members are amphibians with visible tail and could be mistaken as reptiles. Examples are Newts and
salamanders.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. They have a long true tail hence the name “Urodella” meaning evidence/visible tail.
2. They have a body with head, trunk and tail.
3. They have no scales
4. Have two pairs of limbs
5. Adults are shaped like eels
6. They lack external ear drum
7. Breathe through external gills as well as lungs.
8. Legs are almost equal in size.
9. They have small and under developed legs adapted to walking rather than jumping or
hopping.
 Habitat

 Urodelles are usually found in or near water

 Often reside in moist under rocks or logs.

Feeding
Diet consist of insects and worms.
Range form size from 10cm- 1.5m.
DIAGRAM OF NEWTS
DIAGRAM OF SALAMANDER
 CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ORDER APODA
(GYMNOPHIONA) e.g. CAECILIAN.
1. They lack leg(legless) hence the name “Apoda”. They dig burrow by ramming its bony head
through the soft dirt.
2. They are worm-like in shape (body is marked by rings)
3. Usually terrestrial
4. Practically blind
5. Tail is absent or greatly reduced
6. Sensory tentacles located on the head
7. Undergoes internal fertilization
8. Have an elongate body
9. Lack limbs and limb girdle
10. Feed on soli invertebrates such as worms and insects
11. Live in moist soil and leaf liter.
The burrowing movement of land –dwelling caecilians turn soil and thus keep it in good condition.
DIAGRAM OF CAECILIAN
 ANATOMY OF AMPHIBIANS
SKIN
 Amphibian skin is permeable to water and contains mucous glands which keep the skin from drying
out.
 Gas exchange can take place through the skin ( Cutaneous respiration) and this allows adult
amphibian to hibernate from the bottom of the ponds.
 To compensate for their thin and delicate skin, amphibians have evolved a Poison Gland as a defense
mechanism.
 The main poison producing gland is called Parathoid gland and it contains Neurotoxin ( Bufotoxin)
which is located behind the ears of certain frogs and toads; and behind the eyes of Salamanders.
The outside of the skin bearing warts is shed periodically.
 The skin colour of Amphibians is produced by 3 layers of pigment cells called Chromophores
They are;
1. Melanophores- occupying the deepest layer
2. Guanophores- occupying the inter mediate layer
3. Lipophores –occupying the most superficial layer (yellow in colour).
 The colour changes experienced by many species is caused by secretions from the pituitary gland
 SKELETAL SYSTEM

 They Posses a Cranium, spine, ribcage, long

bones such as humorous and femur
 Short bones such as phalanges, metacarpals,
metatarsals.
 Most have four (4) limbs except caecilian
 Bones in amphibians are hollow and light
weight.
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Adult and juveniles have distinct circulatory system.
 In Juveniles (Tadpoles), gills are used to oxygenate
blood.
 In adult stages, amphibians (especially frogs)lose
their gills and develop lungs.
 They have a heart that consists of ventricle and two
auricle or atria that pumps oxygenated blood through
arteries and the oxygenated blood through veins to
the lungs.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Just as in other vertebrates, the nervous system has a central
brain, a spinal cord and nerves throughout the body.
Amphibian brain is less developed compared to that of
reptiles, birds and mammals.it consists of a cerebrum , mid
brain and cerebellum.
The olfactory lobe us the center of the sense of smell.
The pineal body known to regulate sleep patterns in human
is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation
and aestivation in amphibians.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Amphibians swallow their prey whole with some chewing done in the
oral cavities.
• Posses voluminous stomach.
• The esophagus is separated from both the oral cavity and stomach by the
Sphincters
• The short esophagus is lined with cilia that help transport food and
secretions to the stomach.
• Mucus and pepsin, a digestive enzyme are secreted by gland lining the
esophagus.
• Stomach is separated from the intestine by a Pyloric sphincter.
• The duodenum controls the transport of food into the intestine from the
stomach.
 EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Amphibian posses a pancreas, liver and gall bladder.
Liver functions as the central metabolic organ that regulates
blood sugar.
The liver is large with two (2) lobes.
The size of the liver is determined by its vital function as
glycogen and fat storage unit and may change proportionally
with the seasons with increasing or decreasing activity.
The liver of terrestrial amphibians converts ammonia to urea
which is a less toxic water soluble nitrogenous compound.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Adult amphibians breathe using lungs, mouth cavities and
skin.
 Their lungs are well developed; their internal surface are
richly supplied with capillaries as well as with folds that
increase their surface area.
 The skin is also an important respiratory organ in amphibians
as most carbon dioxide is removed through it.
 Ventilation is a accomplished by buccal pumping.
 SENSORY SYSTEM
• The eyes of amphibians have lids and associated glands
and duct.
• The eyes allow for colour vision and depth of focus.
• The tympani or eardrums of many frogs are external
and lie just behind the eyes.
• There is also a patch of papilla amphibiorum in the ear
which is unique to amphibians and which can detect
low frequency sounds.
 REPRODUCTION
• Most amphibians except caecilian have external fertilization.
When frogs reproduce, the male climbs onto the female’s back
and squeezes. In response to this stimulus, the female release as
many as 200 eggs which the male then fertilizes. The eggs
typically hatch into tadpoles after 1-3week.
• Amphibians lay their eggs in water but a few species bury their
eggs in the ground and have devised methods to keep them
moist.
• Some Salamanders have an unusual form of internal fertilization
in which the male never needs to come into direct contact with
the female. Instead, the male deposits a packet of sperm on the
ground and through an elaborate courtship dance persuades the
 DEFENSE MECHANISM
Amphibians have soft bodies and are relatively helpless; they are preyed
on by reptiles, birds and mammals when on land and by fish when in
water.
They are nocturnal and hide during the day there by avoiding predators
that hunt by sight. They defend themselves through;
1. Some amphibians use Camouflage to avoid being detected.
2. They have various colouring such as mottled browns, greys and
olives to make themselves inconspicuous so that they blend into the
background.
3. Other species contain poison gland and use bright colours to warn
potential predators of their toxicity.
4. Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to appear large and fierce
and spadefoot toads scream and leap towards their attacker.
 ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE OF AMPHIBIANS

1. Amphibians play a vital role in ecosystem, as secondary consumers in

many food chains.
2. Tadpoles have significant impact in nutrient cycling.
3. Adult amphibians are the best biological pest controllers.
4. They are herbivorous and are the prey item for both invertebrates and
vertebrates.
5. Decline or extinction of their population has a significant impact on other
organism because of their importance in ecosystem which is why they are
used as biomonitiors.
6. Due to high degree of sensitivity, either during tadpole stage or as adult,
they respond to very slight change in their environment; such responses
have been used to indicate habitat fragmentation, ecosystem stress,
impact of pesticides and various anthropogenic activities.
 REPTILIA
ORIGIN OF REPTILES
Reptiles originated around 310-320 million years ago during the carboniferous
period. Having evolved from advanced reptile- like amphibians that became
increasingly adapted to life on dry land.
MORPHOLOGY - (study of the form and structure of animals and plants)
Reptiles are a class of air breathing vertebrates which are characterized by
skin covered in scales.
They are tetrapod's having four limbs.
Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage.
As a rule, reptiles are oviparous ( egg layers) although certain species of
squamata retain their egg until hatching and a few are viviparous (produce
larva).
Reptiles range in size from a tiny gecko which can grow up to 17mm to a salt
water crocodile which reach 6m in length and weigh over 1000kg.
 ADVANCEMENT OF REPTILES OVER AMPHIBIANS

Reptiles show advancement over amphibians in the following areas:

1. They have better developed lungs than amphibians which enables them
to colonize land habitats.
2. They have tough, dry, scaly skin that protects them from desiccation
and physical injury.
3. Reptile eggs have a shell / thick membranous covering that protects
against desiccation.
The embryo is also protected by a thin membrane called the amniotic
membrane.
4. The jaws of reptiles are designed for crushing or gripping prey.
5. Reptiles have more efficient strategies for water conservation.
6. Reptiles have more efficient and versatile circulatory system .
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASS REPTILIA
Reptiles are characterized by the following features:
i. Possess dry skin with keratinised epidermal horny scales.
ii. Possess bony endoskeleton.
iii. They do not have an external ear.
iv. Fertilization is internal and fertilized eggs laid (oviparous) on
land or eggs retained internally until hatching (ovoviviparous).
v. Possess amniotic egg with leathery shell.
vi. They are cold blooded (poikilothermic/exothermic).
vii. The gut and the ducts of the urinary and reproductive system
open into a posterior chamber called the cloaca.
HABITAT :Reptiles live in a wide range of habitats
including forests, swamps, grasslands, deserts oceans and
mountains.
 CLASSIFICATION

The study of reptiles and amphibians is called

Herpetology.
The class Reptilian is composed of four orders namely;
Order Crocodilia (Crocodiles and Alligators)
Order Testudinata (Turtles)
Order Squamata (Lizards and Snakes)
Order Rhynchocephalia (Tuataras)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER CROCODILIA
(Crocodiles and Alligators)

1. Have a long snout

2. Have four well-developed limbs
3. Possess a muscular tail used to propel them through
the water.
4. They have a complete secondary palate allowing them
to eat and breathe at the same time.
5. They are carnivorous on fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammal.
6. Example are crocodiles, alligators, gavials and caimans.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS
CROCODILE ALLIGATOR
SNOUT: A long, slender, V-shaped snout Snout is wider and U-shaped.

More Aggressive Less aggressive

TEETH: The teeth are expressed even Alligator’s teeth does not show.
when the moth is closed because the upper
and lower jaw are nearly the same width.

**** Incubation temperature determines sex of hatchling: low temperature in nest

results in mostly female hatchlings while high nest temperatures results mainly to
male hatchlings.
A CROCODILE
AN ALLIGATOR
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER TESTUDINATA
(Turtles and Tortoises)
1. Shell is made up of dorsal carapace and ventral plastron.
2. Ribs fuse to the shell so they cannot expand their chest to be
breath.
3. They have poor sound perception.
4. Has no teeth but instead a sharp-edged beak, called a
tomium used as cutting edges to bite off chunks of food.
5. They have a good sense of smell and colour vision.
6. They are oviparous and undergo internal fertilization
accomplished by a penis which is an outgrowth of the
cloacal wall.
A TURTLE
 Eggs are buried in a nest and left to incubate and hatch.

The shell of turtle/tortoise consists of two basic parts, the top

shell which is referred to as a Carapace, and a bottom shell that
is known as a plastron. They are connected on each side by a
portion of the shell known as the bridge.
Some species only eat animal matter while others eat both
plants and animals.
Tortoises are considered as turtles that inhabit land and have
un-webbed feet unlike water turtle that live most of the lives in
water and have webbed feet.
Both lay eggs on land.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORDER SQUAMATA
(Lizards and Snakes)
1. Squamata have two sub-orders.
Sauria (lizards)
Serpentes (Snakes)
2. It is the most diverse of the reptile orders, containing 96% of the reptile species.
SAURIA
Characterized by possession of movable eyelids.
Possession of external ear
Possession of four limbs
Example of Sauria includes geckos, lizards, skinks, chameleons, monitor lizards, iguanas.
SERPENTES
o They are limbless
o Lack eyelids and external ear opening
o Have an elongate body
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORDER SPHENODONTIA /RYNCHOCEPHALIA.
( Tuataras)

They are lizard –like reptiles that includes only one living specie
(Tuatara of New Zealand). Tuatara means “spiny back”.

1. Posses a scaly loose skin which may be soft to touch.

2. Posses a spiny back(has spines from back snout tail).
3. Posses a primitive skull; well developed median parietal eye
(light sensitive eye above the brain).
4. Lack corpulatory organs.
5. Live in burrows and are nocturnal.
6. They feed on worms, lizards, millipedes and small sea birds.
A TUATARA
PHYSIOLOGY –Science that deals with
the way living things function.

1. Reptiles are both poikilothermic and ectothermic although

some such as crocodiles, sea turtles approach a level of
homoeothermic. That is, their temperature does not fluctuate
as much based upon the environment.
 Reptiles have slow metabolic rate, as a result, blood loss
and healing of injuries are both relatively slow.
 Reptiles have an optimum temperature range, a zone of
temperature that they try to maintain while performing daily
activities.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Most reptiles have a 3 chambered heart consisting of

two atria (auricle) one ventricle and 2 aortas that lead
to the systemic circulation.

RESPIRATION
All reptiles breathe using lungs although aquatic
turtles have developed a more permeable skin.
 SKIN

 Skin is covered in horny epidermis, making it water tight and enabling

reptiles to live on dry land.
 Skin is thin and lacks thick dermal layer.
 Exposed part of the reptiles are protected by scales.
EXCRETION
This is performed by two small kidneys.
Turtles like mammals excrete mainly urea.
They lack a specialized structure called loop of henle and so cannot produce
liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid.
Therefore, they use colon to aid in the reabsorption of water.
Excess salt are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some
reptiles.
 DIGESTION
Most reptiles are carnivorous (meat and flesh eaters).
Have a short digestive tract.
Digestion is slower reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their
inability to masticate their food.
Turtles are the only herbivorous reptile group but lack the complex teeth of
mammals. Many swallow rocks and pebbles to aid in digestion.
NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Contains the same basic part of the amphibian brain but the reptile’s
cerebrum and cerebellum are slightly larger.
Sense organs are well developed. Although reptile are considered less
intelligent than mammals and birds.
 VISION
Most reptiles are diurnal animal.

Some snakes have extra sets of

visual organs called PITS and are
sensitive to infrared radiation
(heat)
 REPRODUCTION
Reptiles generally reproduce sexually though some are capable of a sexual
reproduction.
All reproductive activity occurs through the cloaca, the single opening at the
base of the tail where waste is also eliminated.
 Most reptiles have corpulatory organs which are usually retracted or
inverted inside the body
In turtles and crocodiles, the male has a single median penis while squamates,
including snakes and lizards posses a pair of hemipenis.
Most lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery shells.
There are no larval stages of development.
Asexual reproduction has been identified in squamates –
PARTHENOGENESIS, a mode of reproduction in which an egg can develop
into an embryo without being fertilized by a sperm.
 DEFENSE MECHANISM
Avoidance is the most common form of defense in reptiles.
At the first sign of danger, most snakes and lizards crawl away into
the undergrowth and turtles and crocodiles will plunge into water and
sink out of sight.
If the danger arises so suddenly that flight may be harmful, then
crocodiles, turtles and some lizards and snakes hiss loudly when
confronted by an enemy.
Rattlesnakes rapidly vibrate the tip of the tail which is composed of a
series of nested hollow beads.
Some geckos and other lizards shed part of their structure through a
process known as autotomy.(Caudal Autotomy- shedding of the
tail).
SUMMARY AND QUESTIONS
THANK YOU