LINEAR INTEGRATED

CIRCUITS
 LIC
• A linear integrated circuit (linear IC) is a
solid-state Analog device characterized by
a theoretically infinite number of possible
operating states.
• It operates over a continuous range of
input levels. In contrast, a Digital IC has a
finite number of discrete input and output
states.
 LIC
• Within a certain input range, the
amplification curve of a linear IC is a
straight line; the input and output voltages
are directly proportional.
• The best known, and most common, linear
IC is the operational amplifier or op amp.
 LIC
• There are two inputs, called Inverting and
Non-inverting. A signal applied to the
inverting input results in a signal of
opposite phase at the output.
• A signal applied to the non-inverting input
produces a signal of identical phase at the
output. A connection, through a
variable resistance , between the output
and the inverting input is used to control
the Amplification factor .
 LIC
Linear ICs are employed in
•Audio amplifiers,
•A/D (analog-to-digital) converters
•Averaging amplifiers, differentiators,
•DC (direct-current) amplifiers,
•Integrators,
•Multivibrators,
•Oscillators,
•Audio filters, and sweep generators.
Operational Amplifiers
• Introduction
• Background
• Amplifier Introduction
• Basic Circuits Review
• Characteristics of an Ideal Op Amp
• Types of Op Amps
• Practical Applications
• Conclusion
 What is an Op-Amp?
• An Operational Amplifier (known as an
“Op-Amp”) is a device that is used to
amplify a signal using an external power
source
• Op-Amps are generally composed of:
– Transistors, Resistors, Capacitors

= + +
 Brief History
• First patent for Vacuum Tube Op-Amp (1946)

• First Commercial Op-Amp available (1953)

• First discrete IC Op-Amps (1961)

• First commercially successful Monolithic Op-Amps

(1965)
 History Continued…

• Leading to the advent of the modern IC which is still used even

today (1967 – present)

Fairchild μA741 Electrical Schematic of μA741

 Background
• Originally invented in early 1940s using vacuum
tube technology
– Initial purpose was to execute math operations in analog
electronic calculating machines
• Shrunk in size with invention of transistor
• Most now made on integrated circuit (IC)
– Only most demanding applications use discrete
components
• Huge variety of applications, low cost, and ease of
mass production make them extremely popular
 Op-Amps and their Math
A traditional Op-Amp:
V+ : non-inverting input
V- : inverting input
Vout : output
Vs+ : positive power supply
: negative power supply
Vs-

Vout = K (V+ - V-)

• The difference between the two inputs voltages (V+ and V-) multiplied by the gain (K,
“amplification factor”) of the Op-Amp gives you the output voltage

• The output voltage can only be as high as the difference between the power supply
(Vs+ / Vs-)and ground (0 Volts)
 An Ideal Op-Amp

• Infinite voltage gain

• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output impedance
• Infinite bandwidth
• Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero
out if zero in).
 Amplifiers

Single-ended Amplifier

• Differential Amplifier
– Amplifies difference
between inputs
Operational Amplifier
• Output gain high
– A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the
input voltages result in a
very large output voltage
– Output limited by supply
voltages
• Comparator
– If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
– If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
– If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
3-stage Op-Amp
 Why are they useful?

• Sensor signals are often too weak or too

noisy
– Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
 Why are they useful?

• Negative feedback leads to stable equilibrium

• Voltage follower (direct feedback)
– If Vout = V- , then Vout ~ V+

Closed Loop Transfer Function

H(s) = A / (1 + AF)

When AF >> 1…

H(s) = 1 / F
Where: A = Op Amp Open Loop Gain
F = Feedback Loop Gain
1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the
voltage difference between the inputs zero.
2. The inputs draw no current.
 Op Amp Golden Rules

• The op amp has infinite open-loop gain.

• The input impedance of the +/− inputs is infinite.
(The inputs are ideal voltmeters). The output
impedance is zero.
• No current flows into the +/− inputs of the op amp.
• In a circuit with negative feedback, the output of
the op amp will try to adjust its output so that the
voltage difference between the + and − inputs is
zero (V+ = V−).
 Single-Ended Input

+
V o
• + terminal : Source
• – terminal : Ground
~ Vi • 0o phase change


+
Vo • + terminal : Ground
• – terminal : Source
 • 180o phase change

~
V i

21 Ref:080114HKN Operational
Amplifier
 Basic Information of an Op-amp
contd…

Power supply connection:

The power supply voltage may range from about + 5V to

+ 22V.

The common terminal of the V+ and V- sources is

connected to a reference point or ground.
The Inverting Amplifier

Rf Rf
Vout  Vin A 
Rin Rin
 Comparison of the ideal inverting and non-
inverting op-amp

Ideal Inverting amplifier Ideal non-inverting amplifier

1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1 1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1

2. The output is inverted with 2. No phase shift between input

respect to input and output

3. The voltage gain can be 3. The voltage gain is always

adjusted as greater than, equal to greater than one
or less than one

4. The input impedance is R1 4. The input impedance is very

large
 The Ideal Operational Amplifier

• Open loop voltage gain AOL =∞

• Input Impedance Ri =∞

• Output Impedance Ro =0

• Bandwidth BW =∞

• Zero offset (Vo = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0) Vios =0

• CMRR ρ =∞
• Slew rate S =∞
• No effect of temperature
• Power supply rejection ratio PSRR = 0
 Ideal Op-amp
1. An ideal op-amp draws no current at both the input
terminals I.e. I1 = I2 = 0. Thus its input impedance is
infinite. Any source can drive it and there is no loading
on the driver stage

2. The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, hence the

differential input Vd = V1 – V2 is essentially zero for the

finite output voltage Vo

3. The output voltage Vo is independent of the current

drawn from the output terminals. Thus its output
impedance is zero and hence output can drive an infinite
number of other circuits
 Differential Amplifier

V0 =Ad (V1 – V2 )

Ad =20 log10 (Ad ) in dB

(V1  V2 )
Vc =
2
Ad
CMRR= ρ = |
Ac |
 Pulse Width Modulator
• Output changes when
– Vin ~= Vpot
• Potentiometer used to vary
duty cycle

www.allaboutcircuits.com Uses: Motor controllers

 Summation

www.wikipedia.org

Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs

until a threshold is reached.
Difference

V R  R1 R4 V1 R3
Vout  2 3 
( R4  R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal:

Vout V2  V1
 Integrating Op-Amp

www.wikipedia.org

Uses: PID Controller

 Differentiating Op-Amp

www.wikipedia.org

(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)

Filters
• Decouple the low-pass RC
filter from the load.

Uses: Simple audio.

Remove frequencies over
20kHz (audible)
 Low-pass Filter (active)

• Cutoff frequency

• This works
because the
www.wikipedia.org
capacitor needs
time to charge.
 High pass filter (active)

www.wikipedia.org

Band-pass filter cascades both high-pass and low-pass!

 Measuring current
• Current (I) better than voltage (V) for measurement
– Voltage suffers losses due to resistances in path
– Low impedance is better for resisting noise

• So how do we generate a constant current source?

– Transconductance Amplifier
 Transconductance Amp
• Precision 250Ω
resistor
• 1V / 250 Ω = 4mA
• 5V / 250 Ω = 20mA
• RLoad doesn’t matter,
www.allaboutcircuits.com just as long as op-amp
Uses: has high enough
- In: Sensors (temp, pressure, etc), voltage rails
- Out : Radios (Variable Freq Osc)
 Conclusions

• Op-Amps are often used for

– Sensor amplification
– Mathematical operations (sums, difference,
inverse)
– Filters (High/Low/Band pass)
– Measurement devices
• Current in –> Voltage out