Synchronous Machines

Prof. P. Satish Kumar

Department of Electrical Engineering
University College of Engineering, Osmania University
Hyderabad, Telangana
 Contents
 Phasor diagrams of alternator with Salient pole
 O.C and S.C Characteristics
 Short Circuit Ratio (S.C.R)
 Synchronous Impedance Method/E.M.F Method
 Ampere Turn Method/M.M.F Method
 Zero Power Factor Method (Z.P.F. Method)
 Principle of two reaction theory and its application for
salient pole machine
 Synchronizing and Parallel Operation
 Phasor Diagram for a Salient Pole Synchronous
Machine
 The equivalent circuit of a salient-pole synchronous generator is shown in
Fig(a). The component currents Id and Iq provide component voltage drops jI dXd
and jIqXq as shown in Fig (b) for a lagging load power factor.
 The armature current Ia has been resolved into its rectangular components with
respect to the axis for excitation voltage E0. The angle ψ between E0 and Ia is
known as the internal power factor angle. The vector for the armature
resistance drop IaRa is drawn parallel to Ia. Vector for the drop IdXd is drawn
perpendicular to Id whereas that for IqXq, is drawn perpendicular to Iq. The angle
δ between E0 and V is called the ‘power angle’. Following phasor relationships
are obvious from Fig. (b)
 Phasor Diagram for a Salient Pole Synchronous
Machine

E0 = V + IaRa + jIdXd + jIqXq and Ia =

Id + Iq
 If Ra is neglected the phasor diagram becomes as shown in Fig (a). In
this case,
E0 = V + jIdXd + jIqXq

 Incidentally, we may also draw the phasor diagram with terminal voltage V lying in
the horizontal direction as shown in Fig (b). Here, again drop IaRa is || Ia and Id Xd is
perpendicular to Id and drop IqXq is perpendicular to Iq as usual.
 O.C and S.C Characteristics

Fig (a): Schematic diagram of O.C and S.C Characteristics

 Open Circuit Characteristics
 In this test the machine is run by a prime mover at synchronous speed Ns
to generate voltage at the rated frequency, while the armature terminals
are open-circuited as in Fig (a). with switch S open.
 The readings of the open-circuit line-to-line armature voltage, VOC = √3Ef,
are taken for various values of If, the rotor field current.

Fig (b) : O.C and S.C Characteristics

 Open Circuit Characteristics

 The OCC exhibits the saturation phenomenon of the iron in machine. At low values of If when
iron is in the unsaturated state, the OCC is almost linear and the MMF applied is mainly
consumed in establishing flux in the air-gap, the reluctance of the iron path being almost
negligible.

 The straight-line part of the OCC, if extended as shown dotted in Fig. (b) is called the air-gap
line and would indeed be the OCC if iron did not get saturated.
 Short Circuit Characteristics

 The short-circuit characteristic of the machine is obtained by means of the

short -circuit test conducted as per the schematic circuit diagram of Fig. (a)
with switch S closed. While the rotor is run at synchronous speed Ns, the rotor
field is kept unexcited to begin with.

 The field excitation is then gradually increased till the armature current
equals about 150% of its rated value.

 While the current in all the three ammeters should be identical, practically a
small unbalance will always be found on account of winding and field current
dissymmetry’s which cannot be completely avoided in a machine. Therefore,
ISC the short-circuit current per phase is taken as the average value of the
three ammeter readings.
 Short Circuit Ratio (S.C.R)
 The short-circuit ratio (SCR) is defined as the ratio of the field current required
to produce rated voltage on open-circuit to the field current required to
produce rated armature current with the armature terminals shorted while the
machine is mechanically run at synchronous speed.
 Equation (8.32) means that SCR is the reciprocal of Xs (adjusted) in pu.
Therefore, a low value of SCR implies a large value of Xs (adjusted) (pu) and
 Methods to find out Voltage Regulation

 Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F Method

 Ampere-turn or M.M.F Method
 Zero Power Factor or Potier Method
 Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F Method

 This method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature

reaction by a fictitious reactance. For a synchronous generator Determination
of Synchronous Impedance
 To determine the value of synchronous impedance of an alternator
experimentally, the following two tests are performed on the machine: (i)
Open circuit test (ii) Short circuit test
 Open circuit test: The field current If (excitation) is gradually varied
(increased in steps) and the voltage across the terminals of the alternator E is
recorded for every change in the field current. A graph is plotted taking I f
along abscissa and E along the ordinate called open circuit characteristics
(O.C.C.).
 Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F Method
 Short circuit test: The field current If is gradually increased and the short circuit
current Isc is recorded for every change in the field current with the help of ammeter
connected across the alternator terminals. A graph is plotted taking If along
abscissa and Isc along with ordinate called short circuit characteristics (S.C.C.).
 Ampere - Turn or M.M.F Method
 The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the
effect of armature reaction by a fictitious reactance. Accordingly, some
assumptions were made. But due to those assumptions, the voltage
regulation obtained by that method was higher than the actual value.
 In ampere-turn or MMF method, the effect of armature leakage reactance is
to be replaced by an equivalent additional armature reaction MMF. This
additional MMF is combined with the armature reaction MMF.
 To determine the regulation of an alternator by MMF method, the following
information is required.

1) The resistance of the stator winding per phase.

2) Open-circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.

3) Short-circuit characteristics.
 Zero Power Factor Method (Z.P.F.C)
 The regulation obtained by synchronous impedance (or) EMF method and
ampere-turn (or) MMF method is based on the total synchronous reactance i.e.,
(the sum of reactance due to armature leakage flux and due to armature reaction
effect).
 This introduces error due to vectorial addition of magnetic fluxes.
 Whereas, the zero power factor method is based on the separation of reactances
due to leakage flux and that due to armature reaction flux, therefore, it gives
more accurate results.
 For determining voltage regulation by this method, the following data is
required:
(i) Effective resistance of armature winding.
(ii) Open-circuit characteristic.
(iii) Field current to circulate full-load current in the stator.
(iv) Zero-power factor full-load voltage characteristic—a curve plotted between
terminal voltage and field current while the machine is being running on
 Zero Power Factor Method (Z.P.F.C)
 Steps to obtain zero power factor (ZPF) characteristics
1. The machine is rotated at rated synchronous speed by a
prime-mover.
2. A pure inductive load (variable load reactors or an under
excited synchronous motor) is connected across the
armature terminals and the excitation or field current of
the alternator is raised so as to cause flow of full-load
armature current. Usually, the alternator is loaded by an
under excited synchronous motor while plotting zero pf
full-load curve.
3. The value of the reactance is then increased step by
step in such a way that the excitation current is
adjusted to a value that causes full-load rated armature
current to flow. In the process, the armature terminal-
voltages are varied from 125 % to 25 % of the rated
voltage in steps, maintaining the speed and rated
armature current constant throughout the test.
4. Note down the armature terminal voltages and
excitation currents at each step.
Zero Power Factor Method (Z.P.F.C)
3.The value of the reactance is then increased step
by step in such a way that the excitation current is
adjusted to a value that causes full-load rated
armature current to flow. In the process, the
armature terminal-voltages are varied from 125 % to
25 % of the rated voltage in steps, maintaining the
speed and rated armature current constant
throughout the test.

4.Note down the armature terminal voltages and

excitation currents at each step.

5.Draw a curve between terminal voltage and

excitation current, as shown in Fig. It gives the zero
power factor (lagging) characteristic
 Principle of Two Reaction Theory for Salient Pole
Synchronous Machine
 The details of synchronous generators so far mainly apply to round rotor (non-
salient pole) alternators. In these machines, the air gap between the rotor and
stator is uniform, so the effect of magnetic force (MMF) is the same whether it
acts along the pole axis or between the poles. This means the stator’s
reactance is consistent, which is why it’s called synchronous reactance.

 However, in salient pole machines, the air gap is not uniform—it's smaller along
the pole axis (direct axis or d-axis) and larger between the poles (quadrature
axis or q-axis). As a result, the effect of MMF differs depending on whether it
acts along the d-axis or q-axis. The smaller air gap along the d-axis means
lower reluctance (resistance to magnetic flux) and more flux is produced
compared to the q-axis. This difference causes the reactance due to armature
reaction to vary between the d-axis and q-axis. These reactance's are,

1. Xad= Direct axis reactance,

2. Xaq= Quadrature axis reactance.

 Principle of Two Reaction Theory for Salient Pole
Synchronous Machine
 The d axis component of the armature MMF, Fa is denoted by Fd, and the q axis
component by Fq. The component Fd is either magnetizing or demagnetizing. The
component Fq results in a cross-magnetizing effect. If Ψ is the angle between the
armature current Ia and the excitation voltage Ef and Fa is the amplitude of the armature
MMF, then

 Consider a 2 pole, salient pole rotor rotating in the anticlockwise direction within a 2 pole
stator as shown in the figure below:

 The axis along the axis of the rotor is called the direct or the
d axis. The axis perpendicular to the d axis is known as the
quadrature or q axis. The direct axis flux path involves two
small air gaps and is the path of the minimum reluctance.
The path shown in the figure by ϕq has two large air gaps and
is the path of the maximum reluctance.
Two Reaction Theory
 Synchronization
 The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or
with common bus-bars is known as synchronizing. Generally, alternators are used
in a power system where they are in parallel with many other alternators.
 It means that the alternator is connected to a live system of constant voltage and
constant frequency.
 Often the electrical system to which the alternator is connected, has already so
many alternators and loads connected to it that no matter what power is
delivered by the incoming alterna tor, the voltage and frequency of the system
remain the same. In that case, the alternator is said to be connected to infinite
bus-bars.
 It is never advisable to connect a stationary alternator to live bus-bars, because,
stator induced e.m.f. being zero, a short-circuit will result.
 Conditions for Parallel Operation
1. The terminal voltage of the incoming machine must be same as that of bus bar
Voltage.
2. The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine must be same
as that of bus bar frequency.
3. The phase Sequence voltage of the incoming machine must be same as that of
 Synchronization
 Condition (1) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (2) and (3) are indicated by
synchronizing lamps or a synchronoscope.
Advantages of Parallel operation
 Continuity of supply is possible when Breakdown or Shutdown for maintenance of
alternator in generating station.
 Repair and Maintenance of individual machine can be carried out one after the
other without effecting the normal routine work.
 Depending upon the load requirement any number of alternator can be operated
and the remaining can be put off .
 It is economical and improves the efficiency of the generating station New
alternator can be connected in parallel, when the demand increases. This reduces
the capital cost of the system.
 Synchronization

 Methods of Synchronization of alternator Three Methods

1. Dark lamp method.
2. Bright Lamp Method
3. Synchroscope

 Conditions Should Satisfy

1. Voltage
2. Frequency
3. Phase Sequence
 Dark Lamp Synchronization

 A dark lamp method along with a voltmeter can

be used for synchronizing; this method is used for
low power machine.
 The prime mover of the incoming machine is
started and brought nearer to its rated speed. A
field current of the incoming machine is adjusted
in such a way so that it becomes equal to the bus
voltage.
 The flicker of the three lamps occurs at a rate
which is equal to the difference in the frequencies
of the incoming machine and the bus.
 All the lamps will glow and off at the same time if
the phases are properly connected. If this
condition does not satisfy, then the phase
sequence is not connected correctly.
 Dark Lamp Synchronization
 Thus, in order to connect the machine in the correct
phase sequence, two leads to the line of the incoming
machine should be interchanged.
 The frequency of the incoming machine is adjusted
until the lamp flicker at a slow rate.
 The flicker rate should be less than one dark period per
second. After finally adjusting the incoming voltage, the
synchronizing switch is closed in the middle of their
dark period.of the Dark Lamp Method
Advantages
 This method is cheaper.
 The correct phase sequence is easily determined.
Disadvantages of the Dark Lamp Method
 The lamp becomes dark at about half of its rated
voltage. Hence, it is possible that the synchronizing
switch might be switched off even when there is a
phase difference between the machine.
 The filament of the lamp might burn out.
 The flicker of the lamps does not indicate which lamp
has the higher frequency.
 Bright Lamp Synchronization
Method-I
 In this method, the lamps are connected across the
phases such as A, is connected to B2, B1 is connected
to C2 and C₁ is connected to A2. If all the three lamps
get bright and dark together, this means that the
phase sequence is correct. The correct instant of
closing the synchronizing switch is in the middle of the
bright period.
Method-II
 In this method, one lamp is connected between
corresponding phases while the two others are cross-
connected between the other two phases as shown in
the figure below,
 Here, A1 is connected to A2, B1 to C2 and C₁ to B2. The
prime mover of the incoming machine is started and
brought up to its rated speed. The excitation of the
incoming machine is adjusted in such a way that the
incoming machine induces the voltage EA1, EB2, Ec3,
which is equal to the bus-bar voltages VA1, VB1 and VC1.
The diagram is shown in Fig.
 The correct moment to close the switch is obtained at the
instant when the straight connected lamp is dark, and the
connected cross lamps are equally bright.
 If the phase sequence is incorrect, no such instant will
take place, and all the lamps will be dark simultaneously.
The direction of rotation of the incoming machine is
changed by interchanging the two lines of the machine.
 Since the dark range of the lamp extends to a
considerable voltage range, a voltmeter V₁ is connected
across the straight lamp. The synchronizing switch is
closed when the voltmeter reading is zero. Thus, the
incoming machine is now floating on the bus-bar and is
ready to take up the load as a generator. If the prime
 Synchroscope
 Although the three lamp method is cheap but it cannot tell us that either the frequency of
incoming generator is higher or lower.
 In order to parallel alternators in right way a device named Synchroscope is used. In larger
systems lamp method is not applicable so Synchroscope method is used. It consists of three
coils and one moving vane. A pointer is connected to moving vane. The coils are connected to
the bus bar and the alternator which is to be synchronized.
 The potential transformer is used to measure the voltage difference, the pointer move in
clockwise and antic clockwise manner and when speed of incoming machine is same to that
of bus-bar then pointer will stop at vertical point and relays are closed that connect the
alternator to the bus-bar.
 Synchroscope
 Assume the voltage difference, the pointer move in clock-wise or anti clockwise
manner and when speed of incoming machine is same to that of bus.

 If the phase angle between the two voltages is different than the pointer of
Synchroscope will move, it will move to slower point when the incoming machine is
slower and move towards the faster point if then incoming machine is faster and
pointer will stop when the incoming generator frequency is same to that of bus bar if
this situation is attained then the switch is closed.