5.

0 DESIGN OF THE BRIDGE

FOUNDATION

• GENERAL
• SELECTION OF FOUNDATION
• SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• PILE FOUNDATION
• CAISON/WELL FOUNDATION
 5.1 GENERAL

5.1.1 Foundation design consideration

• To select and provide the right type of foundation. This is
achieved when the behaviour , construction and cost of
foundations is known.
• To choose the correct method of analysis. The right choice
results into considerable financial saving and of course a safe
design.
• One of the methods of assessing the cost of alternative
foundation solutions is by means of a cost comparison ratio of
foundation to deck or foundation to whole bridge. These may
also be likened with those of previous bridge projects.
 5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 Foundation design consideration

• Easy, simple and quick to construct type of bridge designs should

be favoured .to avoid a need for specialists, repetitive and
simple procedures,readily available construction materials, simple
foundation shapes, level bottom foundation and simple details
which can be adjusted on site.
• Horizontal and vertical surfaces for foundations as much as
possible, use of formworks which could be reused several times,
medium sized bars as very large bars are difficult to bend,the
construction sequence has to be considered along with the
maintenance aspects such as de-silting.
 5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 Foundation design consideration
• The possibility of floods and flood debris during
construction should be looked at because they are
a problem at that stage.
• Scour is a major cause of bridge failures during its
service time. Hence foundations have to be below
the lowest scour level or bed protection works .
Moreover, streamlined edges on pier above the
foundation
 5.1 GENERAL
5.1.2 Procedures
• Conduct site reconnaissance for site
accessibility, soil investigation, observing
performance of existing foundation structures in
the neighbourhood and make enquiries to the
local contractors.
• Then analyse the results of the site
reconnaissance by :-
 5.1 GENERAL
5.1.2 Procedure
• Studying the maps. i.e. geological, topographical etc,
Examining aerial photographs, Discussing with geologists
and hydrologists, Analyzing the hydraulic survey results.
• Sometimes pile tests are done on the site to get a realistic
data for design. On locations requiring piles, plate bearing
tests may be done to see the possibility of eliminating use
of piles.
• The designer should be involved in the site investigations
so that s/he gets the feedback, proposes locations for
investigations and supervises the investigation.
 5.1 GENERAL

5.1.2 Procedure
• Other data are obtained from the bridge deck
design whereby the following are determined:-
• Number of foundations,
• Loading on foundations,
• Size of foundations and
• Location of foundations.
 5.2 Selection of Foundation
5.2.1 Shallow foundation
• These includes spread footings (pad, combined or raft) and
strip footings (walls)
• Shallow foundations are applicable for:
– Minor bridges of low bearing pressure.
– stiff clay medium dense dry sand or gravel
– Stiff ground over soft ground e.g. gravel over clay
– Chalk since chalk consolidates quickly under load
– Compacted fill
– Hard gravelly soil and rocky strata
 Worked example
Foundation Normal Earth Pressures

(i) Due to backfill on the footing

Given that; s = 18 kN/m3
P = 18 x 6 x 1.75 = 189 kN/m
For the whole length of the abutment,
P = 189 x 10.3 = 1947 kN

(ii) Due to Surcharge

For HA loading, 10 kN/m2
For HB loading, 20 kN/m2 for 45 HB units
Choose the critical value from HB, hence
P = 20 x 1 x 1.75 = 35 kN/m
For the whole length of abutment:
P = 35 x 10.3 = 360.5 kN

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 Loads to the Foundation footing
S u rc h a rg e 0 .3 0 0 .4 5

1 .0 5 m
Nd
10m m Nd = S u p e rs tru c tu re lo a d
Fb
0 .15 5 Gw = Lo a d d u e to s e lf w e ig h t
Ns o f a b u tm e n t s te m
0 .3 Gf = Lo a d d u e to s e lf w e ig h t
0.1 3 o f fo u n d a tio n
Vs

4 .9 5 m
Ea = Ea rth fill lo a d - h o rizo n ta l
Ea Gw

5 .9 5
En = Ea rth fill lo a d - n o rm a l
Ns = No rm a l lo a d d u e to
s u rc h a rg e
3 .5
2 .3 3

Vs = Ho rizo n ta l lo a d d u e to
Gf

1 .0 0 m
En s u rc h a rg e
1 .1 2 5 Fb = B ra kin g fo rc e
Re f. P o in t
1 .7 5 0 .7 5 1 .5 0

4 .0 0 m

10
Foundation loads

Load Type N V La M M
(kN) (kN) (m) (kNm) (kNm)
DL from abutment 995.6 0.13 124.45
DL from self weight of footing 988.8 0 0
DL from superstructure 609.45 0.3 182.84
Superimposed DL of 0.3 45.98
superstructure 153.26
Live load on superstructure 1711.04 0.3 513.31
Braking 0 450.00 5.95 2677.54
Earth fill load - Horizontal 0 1230.95 2.33 2868.11
Earth fill load - Normal 1947 0 1.13 0 2200.11
Surcharge load -Horizontal 0 390.78 3.5 1367.73 0
Surcharge load -Normal 360.5 0 1.13 0 407.37
TOTAL 6765.65 2071.74 7779.96 2607.48

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 Analysis of abutment Foundation
Lm
1 .7 5 0 .7 5 1 .5 0
1 .5 d Lv
2
kN/m
4 6 .3

kN/m 2
2 8 2 .1

Stress
in the
 4 
soil L
12
Foundation loads

Load Type N V La M M
(kN) (kN) (m) (kNm) (kNm)
DL from abutment 995.6 0.13 124.45
DL from self weight of footing 988.8 0 0
DL from superstructure 609.45 0.3 182.84
Superimposed DL of 0.3 45.98
superstructure 153.26
Live load on superstructure 1711.04 0.3 513.31
Braking 0 450.00 5.95 2677.54
Earth fill load - Horizontal 0 1230.95 2.33 2868.11
Earth fill load - Normal 1947 0 1.13 0 2200.11
Surcharge load -Horizontal 0 390.78 3.5 1367.73 0
Surcharge load -Normal 360.5 0 1.13 0 407.37
TOTAL 6765.65 2071.74 7779.96 2607.48

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 Stresses in the soil
N M
 1 ,2  
BL Z

 L  Lm 
 3  2     1   2 
 L 
Face shear at column/wall face
1  3
V  B .Lm
2
Critical shear at a distance 1.5d from column/wall face
1 4
V  B .Ls
2

14
 Design Moment
Design Moment at critical section (= at wall face)

Lm 1 2
M d  3 .Lm .B .  . 1   3 Lm .B . Lm
2 2 3
Md = 284.33 kNm/m

15
Design moment; M = 7779.96 - 2607.48 = 5172.48 kNm

A = 10.3 x 4 = 41.2 m2

Z = 10.3 x 4 x 4/6 = 27.47 m3

Stress in the soil:

 = 6765.65/A  5172.48 x 6/Z = 164.2  188.30

1 = 352.50 kN/m2 and 2 = - 24.1 kN/m2.

3 = ? kN/m2

4 = ? kN/m2 (obtained after establishing the effective depth, d.

16
 5.2.2 Deep Foundations
Generally adopted for major bridges
Deep foundations are applied when;
• Heavy concentrated loads have to be transmitted to
the ground
• In presence of expansive and collapsible soils at site
such as soft clays, peat, and uncompacted fills.
• Lateral forces are relatively prominent
• Offshore structures
• Over rivers irrespective of ground conditions
• High water table in permeable ground
Deep foundations include piles, caissons and wells.
 5.2.2 Pile Foundations

Types of Piles Based on the materials:

Steel Piles (Pipe piles, Rolled steel H-section piles)

 Concrete Piles (Pre-cast Piles, Cast-in-situ Piles,
and Bored-in-situ piles)
 Timber Piles
Composite Piles
 Types of Piles
Concrete Piles:
Pre-cast Piles:
• Usual length: 10 m – 45 m
• Usual Load: 7500 kN – 8500 kN
• Cast-in-situ Piles:
• Usual length: 5 m – 15 m
• Usual Load: 200 kN – 500 kN
 Types of Piles
Concrete Piles:
Pre-cast Piles:
• Usual length: 10 m – 45 m
• Usual Load: 7500 kN – 8500 kN
• Cast-in-situ Piles:
• Usual length: 5 m – 15 m
• Usual Load: 200 kN – 500 kN
 Types of piles
Advantage:
• Relatively cheap
• It can be easily combined with concrete
superstructure
• Corrosion resistant
• It can bear hard driving
Disadvantage:
• Difficult to transport
 Types of Piles
 Based on their function
• End Bearing Piles
• Friction Piles
• Compaction Piles
• Anchor Piles
• Tension piles

 Based on the effect of Installation

• Displacement Piles
• Non-displacement Piles
 Pile Foundations

• Selection of pile type

• An experienced specialist should be consulted in
selecting the right type of pile for the kind of the soil
strata
• Some piles may increase the strength of some soil
and other soils may loose some strength. The
expert knows which is which.
• Piling contractors may offer good advice if
consulted.
 Pile foundations

• Sometimes in case of doubt a trial pile can be installed

to confirm its adequacy
• Difficulty of driving piles may result from poor quality
plant and labour which is a responsibility of the
contractor. However some difficulties are due to
unforeseeable ground conditions.
• The designer must supervise the pile instillation very
closely.
 Pile cap

Piles
Weak soil

Bearing stratum
 PILE FOUNDATIONS
GENERAL
TYPES
PILE LOAD CAPACITY
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
 GENERAL
• Pile foundation is a slender column which is
driven or installed deep into the ground usually
in groups to provide foundations for structures.
• Piles are designed to resist: vertical loads( from
superstructure or uplift), horizontal loads or their
combinations.
• Piles are required when: the soil is soft; there is a
very heavy load; there is certain site constraints;
likelihood of scouring of the soil, to support
structures under water etc.
 TYPES OF PILES
 Piles are classified by different criteria such as:
 Materials – timber, steel, concrete, composite
piles.
 Mode of load transfer- Bearing, friction, tension
piles
 Method of construction- Precast, cast in situ,
prestressed piles etc
 Cross section – circular, square, hexagonal, I
section, H-section, pipe etc.
 Shape- cylindrical, tapered, under reamed, etc.
 Method of installation- Driven, bored, vibrated etc.
X-section, pipe and H-sections
 End piles and friction piles
End bearing piles Friction piles
Composite Piles (concrete with timber)
 TYPES OF PILES
BS8004 classify piles into three categories based
on method of installation as:
 Large displacement piles -solid driven piles
including precast concrete piles, steel or concrete
tubes closed at the lower end.- Preferred for use
in loose to medium sands and not in clays.
 Small displacement piles-rolled steel sections
such as H-pile and open-end tubular piles.
 Non displacement (Replacement piles) - formed
by machine boring, grabbing or hand-digging
 PILE LOAD CAPACITY
 Safe Load Carrying Capacity
The load of resistance shall be the lesser of the following
two values;
 Ultimate load carrying capacity based on the soil
parameters surrounding the pile divided by a suitable
factor of safety
 Structural strength of the pile
 Ultimate Pile load capacity of a pile may be estimated by
several methods including:
 Static pile formula.
 Dynamic pile formula.
 Pile load test.
 PILE LOAD CAPACITY
Structural Strength of Pile
 The structural strength of a pile section shall
be assessed based on its axial load and
moment (caused by lateral loads) based on
short or long column action, depending on
pile end conditions.
 Static pile formulae
• The weight of the pile and the applied loads are
supported by the frictional resistance of the soil on the
surface of the pile and the bearing resistance at the
base.
• With the increasing load on a pile initially the resistance
is offered by side friction.
• When the side resistance is fully mobilized to the shear
strength of soil, the rest of load is supported by pile end.
• If this load increases, the soil at the pile end fails by
punching shear at ultimate point loads.
The Qu
ultimate bearing
capacity (Qu ) is the sum of skin
friction and end-bearing
resistance.
Qs
Qu= Qb+ Qs …………(1)
where
Qu – Ultimate load capacity of W
the pile,
Qb -end bearing resistance and Qb

Qs - side friction resistance

 If Qb >>Qs the pile is end
 End Bearing Resistance
C – Ø soils
qb = cNc + σ’Nq + 0.5ƳBNƳ
where B = width or diameter of the pile.
σ’ = effective overburden pressure at the tip of the pil (= ƳL).N Ƴ,Nq and Nc are
bearing capacity factors.
In deep foundations; 0.5ƳBNƳ is relatively small compared to σ’Nq and hence
is neglected.
The equation reduces to: qb = cNc + σ’Nq
Granular soils : c =C’ =0; qb = σ’Nq .
Clay soils: c = cu and Øu =0; qb = cu Nc .
Where cu = undrained shear strength of clay at the base.
Thus; Ultimate point load Qb = qb Ab.
 Shaft Friction Resistance
The ultimate shaft friction stress qs for piles may be
expressed in terms of mean vertical effective stress
as :
qs = c’+ K σ’vtanδ
 Where
 K= coefficient of horizontal pressure.
 σv’ = mean vertical effective stress
 δ = angle of friction along pile/soil interface
Thus; Qs = qs As
where As = pl; p is the perimeter of the pile and L is
the embedded length of the pile.
 Piles in clays
 The ultimate end bearing resistance for piles in clays
is often related to the undrained shear strength, cu,
as: qb=Nccu
Qb=AbNc cu where Nc= 9.
 The ultimate shaft friction (qs) for soils in stiff over-
consolidated clays may be estimated on the semi-
empirical method as: qs=Cu.
 is the adhesion factor (range from 0.4 to 0.9).
 Ultimate capacity Qu = AbNc cu + Cu As
 Allowable Pile Capacity
Q all = Qu / F .
Factor of Safety shall be used by giving due consideration to the following
points:
• Reliability of soil parameters used for calculation
• Mode of transfer of load to soil
• Importance of structure
• Allowable total and differential settlement tolerated by structure.
• Factor of safety on total load capacity = 2.5; on shaft resistance = 1.5; and
on base resistance = 3.0 (IS: 2911)
• In general, an appropriate factor of safety for a single pile would be
between two and three.(BS 8004 sec. 7.3.8)
 Pile groups
• Very simple pile arrangements should be preferred due to
simplified design and less cost of installing.
• For foundation, only vertical piles are enough since lateral
loads are neglected for small bridges not on soft ground.
• For abutments, raking piles are needed with moment
capacity ( usually a combined truss and fame action).
• Settlement of embankment and substructure causes down
drag i.e. a negative skin friction.
• The pile cap may at the end be supported by the piles alone
if the ground settles relative to the piles or by the ground
and piles if the piles settle relative to the ground.
 Pile group arrangement
• Pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of
piles.
• The pile cap distributes the applied load to the
individual piles which, in turn,. transfer the load to
the bearing ground.
• The individual piles are spaced and connected to the
pile cap or tie beams.
• They can be arranged in different patterns depending
on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load.
 Pile group arrangement
Q- vertical applied loads and H – horizontal applied loads
 Ultimate load capacity of Pile groups
 A group of piles may fail either by block failure or by
individual failure.
 Ultimate load capacity by block failure:
Qug = AbNc cub + PbLC’u
Where C’u = average undrained strength of clay along the
length of the block.
Ab = cross section area of the block.
Pb = perimeter of the block.
Ultimate load capacity by individual failure:
Qug = n Qu n= no. of piles.
 The ultimate load capacity is the smaller of the two.
Block failure
 Efficiency of group piles
 Efficiency η = Qug / n Qu
where Qu = load capacity of one pile.
 Group efficiency depends on: spacing between piles, type
of piles and the installation method.
 Close spacing results the soil between piles move upwards
and cause uplift force.
 Large spacings necessitates bigger pile cape which is
uneconomical.
 Bored cast in situ piles permit smaller spacing because the
installation does not results into densification of soil
around the piles.
 CP( 2004:1972)suggests min. spacing = twice perimeter of
a friction pile and twice the least width of end bearing pile.
 PILE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
• Every design will have to satisfy three
conditions:
a) the factor of safety against failure, has to
be adequate;
b) the different settlement should not be so
large as to affect the serviceability.
c) the safety and stability of nearby buildings a
should not be put at risk.
 Pile design considerations
• Decide whether to use a piled foundation.
• Choose type of pile to suit ground conditions, installation
process etc.
• Should have necessary strength to transmit the loads
imposed on it to the soil when installed.
• Ground conditions such as soil characteristics and ground
water table.
• Where group piles are installed consider the effect of spacing
and size of the group. Nominal pile diameters are given in
Table 15 BS 8004.
8004 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 750 900 1050
1200 1350 1500mm.