Elementary Statisticsand
Probability
Unit 1
Basic Concepts and Terminologies
in Statistics
What is Statistics?
Statistics
Statistics is a science that deals with the collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of data.
Statistics is a collection of methods for planning experiments,
obtaining data and then organizing, summarizing, presenting,
analyzing, interpreting and drawing conclusions based on the
data.
Identify which of the following questions are answerable using a
statistical process.
What is the ratio of teachers to students in secondary public schools in
Cagayan Province?
(Requires statistical process)
What is the smallest bone in a human body?
(Does not require statistical process)
What seminars and trainings do teachers of CSU need for the next five (5)
years?
(Requires statistical process)
Is planet Mars bigger than planet Earth?
(Does not require statistical process)
Who have a better study habit, teacher education students or medical
technology students?
(Require statistical process
Objectives of Statistics
Practitioners need to understand statistics:
To know how to properly present and describe information,
To know how to draw conclusions about large populations
based only on information obtained from samples,
To know howto solveproblems and make sensible,
valid, and reliable decisions on the basis of the statistical
analysis conducted.
Main Objective of Statistics
To help us in making wise decision.
Decision-making is an
important part of our lives. Everybody
makes decisions almost everyday.
Main Objective of Statistics
For instance,
Students decide on what course they would take in college
that could give them high salary and a better future.
Mothers decide on what brand of milk to buy.
Business-minded people think whether to put their money in
the bank or to open a business or a factory
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics uses
summarizes or describes the sampledata to make
important characteristics of a inference about a population.
known set of data. It consists of generalizing
from samples to populations,
performing hypothesis testing,
determining relationships
among variables, and making
predictions.
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics are Inferential Statistics are
statistical procedures used for statistical procedures that allow
summarizing, organizing, one to draw inferences to the
population on the basis ofsample
graphing and describing data. In particular, these statistics
univariate data. test for statistical significance of
Examples: results –
i.e. statistically significant
frequencies, percentages, relationships between variables,
measures of central or statistically
tendency, measures of significant differences between
variation, and cross two or more
tabulations groups. In quantitative data
analysis, there are several
Population Vs. Sample
A POPULATION is a complete A SAMPLE is a
collection of all elements portion/sub- collection of
(scores, people, elements drawn from a
measurements) to be population.
studied.
Determining Adequate Sample Size
To determine the sample size from a given population
size, the Slovin’s formula is used.
𝑵
𝒏
=
Where n = sample
𝟏
size
+
N = population
𝒆𝟐
size e =
margin of
Solv
e!
1. A group of researchers will conduct a survey to find out the
opinion of residents of a particular community regarding the
oil price hike. If there are 10,000 residents in the community
and the researchers plan to use a sample using a 10%
margin of error, what would be the sample size?
Solution: Here: N = 10 000 and e = 10% or 0.10. Substituting the given
values in the formula, we have
𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎
𝟏+. 𝒏
𝟏𝟎 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝟏+. 𝟎𝟏 (𝟏𝟎
𝟐
=
𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝟏𝟎
𝒏 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎
=
𝟏
𝒏 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟎𝟏
𝒐𝒓 𝟗𝟗
Solv
e!
2. Suppose that in Example 1, the researchers would like to
use a 5% margin of error. What should be the size of the
sample?
Solution: Here: N = 10 000 and e = 5% or 0.05.
Substituting the given values in the formula, we have
𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒏=
𝟏+. 𝟎𝟓 (𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝒏 𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝟏𝟎
𝟏+. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓
=
𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝒏 = 𝟑𝟖𝟒. 𝟔𝟐 𝒐𝒓
𝟑𝟖𝟓
Parameter Vs. Statistic
A PARAMETER is a A STATISTIC is a
numerical measurement numerical
describing some measurement
characteristics of a describing a
population. characteristic of a
Summary data from a sample.
population Summary data from
a sample
Data Vs. Variable
DATA VARIABLE
•measurements or •a characteristic
observations of a that is
variable observed or
•the word “data” is plural, manipulated
datum is singular. •can take on
•a collection of data is often different values
called a data set (singular)
Classifications of Variables
Qualitative Data Vs. Quantitative Data
QUALITATIVE DATA QUANTITATIVE DATA
(categorical) can be separated (numerical) consist of
into different categories that numbers representing
are distinguished by some counts or measurements.
nonnumeric characteristics.
Qualitative Data Vs. Quantitative Data
QUALITATIVE DATA QUANTITATIVE DATA
•smoking Status •weight
•physical Activity at Home •body Mass Index
•cause of death •blood Glucose
•nationality •survival time
•race •systolic blood pressure
•gender •number of children in
•severity of pain a family
Classifications of Variables
Discrete Data Vs. Continuous Data
DISCRETE DATA result from CONTINUOUS DATA result
either a finite number of from infinitely many possible
possible values or countable values that can be
number of possible values associated with points on a
as 0, or 1, or 2, and so on. continuous scale in such a
way that there are no gaps
or interruptions.
Discrete Data Vs. Continuous Data
DISCRETE DATA CONTINUOUS DATA
•the number of eggs that •the amounts of milk
hens lay that cows produce
•number of pregnancies •duration of a seizure
•number of missing teeth •body mass index
•height
Dependent Variable Vs. Independent Variable
DEPENDENT VARIABLE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
•the variable that is being •the variable that
affected or explained affects or explains
•what is measured as an •precede dependent
outcome in a study variables in time
•values depend on the •are often manipulated
variabl
independent research
by the
e •er
the treatment or
that is used in a
intervention
study
Dependent Variable Vs. Independent Variable
Example
Research Title: Effect of crime rates on tourist arrivals
Crimeratesrepresent the independent variable, and
tourist arrivals represent the dependent
variable.
Dependent Variable Vs. Independent Variable
Example
Research Title: Enhancing Students’ Performance in
Analytic Geometry Through GeoGebra Software
Independent variable – Use of Geogebra software in
teaching AG Dependent variable – Students’ performance
in AG (grades or test scores)
Levels of Measurement
Levels of Measurement
The NOMINAL LEVEL of measurement is characterized by
data that consist of names, labels, or categories only.
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale
in which the numbers serve as “tags” or “labels” to
classify or identify the objects.
A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric
variables or the numbers that do not have any
value.
Characteristics of Nominal Scale
• A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more
categories. In this measurement mechanism, the answer
should fall into either of the classes.
• It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the
objects.
• The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The
only permissible aspect of numbers in the nominal scale
is “counting.”
Nominal
Level
Example:
•Gender: Male, female
•Eye color: Blue, green, brown
•Hair color: Blonde, black, brown, grey, other
•Blood type: O-, O+, A-, A+, B-, B+, AB-,
AB+
•Political Preference: Republican, Democrat,
Independent
•Place you live: City, suburbs, rural
Levels of Measurement
The ORDINAL LEVEL of measurement involves data that
may be arranged in some order but differences between
data values either cannot be determined or are
meaningless.
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that
reports the ordering and ranking of data without
establishing the degree of variation between them.
Ordinal represents the “order.”
Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical
data. It can be grouped, named and also ranked.
Characteristics of the
• The ordinal
Ordinal Scale scale shows the relative ranking of the
variables
• It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
• Along with the information provided by the nominal scale,
ordinal scales give the rankings of those variables
• The interval properties are not known
• The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of
agreement concerning the identified order of variables
Ordinal
Levele:
Exampl
• Ranking of school students – 1st,
2nd, 3rd, etc.
• Satisfaction
Very unsatisfi
ed
Ratings unsatisfied
in restaurants very
satisfied satisfied
• Evaluating
Very often the frequency
Often of Not at
occurrences
Not often all
• Assessing the degree of
agreement
Totally
agree
Agree
Levels of Measurement
The INTERVAL LEVEL of measurement is like the ordinal
level, but meaningful amounts of differences can be
determined. It has no inherent (natural) zero starting
point.
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale.
It is defined as a quantitative measurement scale in
which the difference between the two variables is
meaningful.
In other words, the variables are measured in an exact
manner, not as in a relative way in which the presence
of zero is arbitrary.
Characteristics of Interval Scale:
• The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the
difference between the values
•It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
• To understand the difference between the variables, you
can subtract the values between the variables
• The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as
it helps to assign any numerical values to arbitrary
assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Interval
Level
Example:
•Temperature: Measured in
Fahrenheit or Celsius
•Credit Scores: Measured from
300 to 850
•SAT Scores: Measured from
400 to 1,600
•IQ
Levels of Measurement
The RATIO LEVEL of measurement is the interval level
modified to include the inherent zero starting point.
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale,
which is quantitative.
It is a type of variable measurement scale.
It allows researchers to compare the differences or
intervals.
The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the
character of the origin or zero points.
Characteristics of Ratio Scale:
•Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero
•It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point
feature
• It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis.
The variables can be orderly added, subtracted, multiplied,
divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the
ratio scale.
• Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such
feature is that it allows unit conversions like kilogram –
Ratio Level
Levels of
MeasurementPermissible Best
Measurement
mathematics measure of
scale
operations central
tendency
Nominal Counting Mode
Greater or less than
Ordinal Median
operations
Symmetrical –
Interval Addition and
Mean Skewed
subtraction
– Median
Addition, Symmetrical –
Ratio
