CE-430

Foundation Engineering
Lecture-5
Course Duration: One Semester
Credit Units: 02 Credit Hrs. (Contact Hrs. 02)
Level: 7th Semester (4th Year)
Medium of Instruction: English
Prerequisites: Geo-technical Engineering-I Lab

Engr. Naveed Ali

Lecturer,
UET, Peshawar, Jalozai Campus

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, Jalozai Campus

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PILE FOUNDATIONS

Piles are structural members made of steel, concrete, and/or timber.

They are used to build pile foundations, which are deep and more costly than
shallow foundations.

Despite the cost, the use of piles is often necessary to ensure structural
safety.

Drilled shafts are cast-in-place piles that generally have a diameter greater
than
750 mm with or without steel reinforcement and with or without an enlarged
bottom.
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Need for Pile Foundations
Pile foundations are needed in special circumstances. The following are some
situations in which piles may be considered for the construction of a
foundation.
1. When the upper soil layer(s) is (are) highly compressible and too weak to
support the load transmitted by the superstructure, piles are used to
transmit the load to underlying bedrock or a stronger soil layer, as shown in
Figure (a).
When bedrock is not encountered at a reasonable depth below the ground
surface, piles are used to transmit the structural load to the soil gradually.
The resistance to the applied structural load is derived mainly from the
frictional resistance developed at the soil–pile interface (Figure b).

In figure (b) the pile are driven up

to such a depth that frictional
resistance developed at the sides
of the piles equals the load coming
on the piles
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2. When subjected to horizontal forces (see Figure
c), pile foundations resist by bending while still
supporting the vertical load transmitted by the
superstructure.

This situation is generally encountered in the design

and construction of earth-retaining structures and
foundations of tall structures that are subjected to
strong wind and/or earthquake forces.

3. In many cases, the soils at the site of a proposed structure may be

expansive and collapsible.

These soils may extend to a great depth below the ground surface.

Expansive soils swell and shrink as the moisture content increases and
decreases, and the swelling pressure of such soils can be considerable.
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If shallow foundations are used, the structure may

suffer considerable damage.

However, pile foundations may be considered as an

alternative when piles are extended beyond the active
zone, which swells and shrinks (Figure d).

Soils such as loess are collapsible. When the moisture

content of these soils increases, their structures may
break down.

A sudden decrease in the void ratio of soil induces

large settlements of structures supported by shallow
foundations.

In such cases, pile foundations may be used, in which

piles are extended into stable soil layers beyond the
zone of possible moisture change.
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4. The foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers,
offshore platforms, and basement mats below the water table, are subjected
to uplifting forces. Piles are sometimes used for these foundations to resist
the uplifting force (Figure e).

5. Bridge abutments and piers are usually constructed over pile foundations
to avoid the possible loss of bearing capacity that a shallow foundation
might suffer because of soil erosion at the ground surface (Figure f).

Although numerous investigations,

both theoretical and experimental,
have
been conducted to predict the
behavior and the load-bearing
capacity of piles in granular and
cohesive soils, the mechanisms are
not yet entirely understood and may
never be clear.

The design of pile foundations may be

considered somewhat of an “art” as a
result of the uncertainties involved in
working with some subsoil conditions
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Type of Piles Based on Material

Different types of piles are used in construction work, depending on

The types of load to be carried
The subsoil conditions and
The location of the water table

One the basis of materials, piles can be divided into the following
categories.

1. Steel piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Wooden (timber) piles
4. Composite Piles

Steel piles generally are either pipe piles or rolled steel H-section piles.
Pipe piles can be driven into ground with their ends open or closed.

General facts about steel piles

Usual length: 15 – 60 m (50 – 200 ft)
Usual load: 300 kN – 1200 kN (67 – 256 kip / 33 – 128 ton)
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Type of Piles Based on Material

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H-piles
These pile are usually
of wide flange section.

They are suitable for

trestle type structure (A
supporting tower
used to support a
bridge) in which pile
extend above ground
level and act as
column.

They have small cross

section area, there for
they can be easily
driven In soil.

It used as long pile with

high bearing capacity.
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Advantages

Easy to handle with respect to cutoff and extension to the desired length
Can stand high driving stresses
Can penetrate hard layers such as dense gravel and soft rock
High load-carrying capacity

Disadvantages

Relatively costly
High level of noise during pile driving
Subject to corrosion
H-piles may be damages or deflected from the vertical during driving
through hard layers or past major obstructions.
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Concrete piles – Precast

Two categories:
(a) Precast Piles
(b)Cast-in-situ piles

General facts about Precast concrete piles

Usual length: 10 – 15 m (30 – 50 ft)
Usual load: 300 kN – 3000 kN (67 – 675 kip / 33 – 337 ton)

Advantages
Can be subjected to hard driving
Corrosion resistant
Can be easily combined with a concrete superstructure
Disadvantages
Difficult to achieve proper cutoff
Difficult to transport
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Various shapes of Precast Concrete piles
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Concrete piles – Precast Prestressed
Precast piles can be prestressed by use of high-strength steel pre-stressing
cables.
During casting of piles, the cables are pre-tensioned to about 900-1300
MN/m2 (130-190 ksi), and concrete is poured around them.

General facts about precast prestressed concrete piles

Usual length: 10 – 45 m (30 – 150 ft)
Max length: 60 m (200 ft)
Max load: 7500 – 8500 kN (1700 – 1900 kip / 850 – 950 ton)

Advantages and disadvantages are same as those of precast piles

Strand: Line
consisting of a
complex of fibers
or filaments that
are twisted
together to form
a thread or a
rope or a cable
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Concrete piles – Cased cast-in-situ
Cast-in-situ piles are built by driving a steel casing into the ground with
the help of a mandrel inside the casing. When the pile reaches the proper
depth, the mandrel is withdrawn, and casing is filled with concrete.

General facts about cased cast-in-situ concrete piles

Usual length: 5 – 15 m (15 –50 ft)
Max length: 30 – 40 m (100 – 130 ft)
Usual load: 200 –500 kN (45 – 115 kip / 22 – 57 ton)
Max Load: 800 kN (180 kip / 90 ton)

Advantages
Relatively cheap
Allow for inspection before pouring concrete
Easy to extend

Disadvantages
Difficult to splice after concreting
Thin casing may be damaged during driving

Cased driven cast in-situ concrete pile

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Friction Pile

Heavy loads
Marine structure

Cast-in-place concrete piles

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Monotube pile
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Monotube pile

Franki
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Concrete piles – Uncased cast-in-situ
Cast-in-situ piles are built by making a hole in the ground and then filling it
with concrete. These piles are divided into two broad categories: (a) cased,
and (b) uncased.

General facts about Uncased cast-in-situ concrete piles

Usual length: 5 – 15 m (15 –50 ft)
Max length: 30 – 40 m (100 – 130 ft)
Usual load: 300 –500 kN
(67 – 115 kip / 33 – 57 ton)
Max Load: 700 kN (160 kip / 80 ton)

Advantages
Initially economical
Can be finished at any elevation

Disadvantages
Voids may be created if concrete is placed rapidly
Uncased driven cast in-situ concrete pile
Difficult to splice after concreting
In soft soils, the sides of the hole may cave in, squeezing the concrete
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Timber piles

Timber piles are tree trunk that have had their branches and bark carefully
trimmed off. This is the basis of a simple classification
The maximum length of most of the timber piles is 10 to 20 meter.
To qualify for use as a pile, the timber should be straight, sound, and
without any defects. In any case, a pile tip should not have a diameter less
than 6 inches.

Composite piles

The upper and lower portions of composite piles are made of different
materials. For example, the composite piles may be made of steel and
concrete or timber and concrete.

Steel-and-concrete piles consist of a lower portion of steel and an upper

portion of cast-in-place concrete.
This type of pile is used when the length of pile required for adequate
bearing exceeds the capacity of simple cast-in-place concrete piles.
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Classification based on Length and mechanism of load transfer
Pile can be divided into three major categories, depending on their lengths
and the mechanisms of load transfer to the soil:

1. Point bearing piles / End bearing piles

2. Friction Piles
3. Compaction Piles

Point bearing piles / End bearing piles

If the soil-boring records establish the presence of bedrock or rocklike

material at a site within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended to the
rock surface.
In this case, the ultimate capacity of piles depends entirely on the load
bearing capacity of the underlying materials; thus, piles are called point
bearing piles.

End bearing pile rests on a relative firm soil . The load of the structure is
transmitted through the pile into this firm soil or rock because the base of
the pile bears the load of the structure, this type of pile is called end
bearing pile
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PILES SOFT SOIL

ROCK

Point bearing piles / End bearing

piles
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Friction Piles
If the firm soil is at a considerable When loose soil extended
depth, it may be very expensive to to a great depth, pile are
use end bearing piles. In such driven up to such a depth
situations, the piles are driven that frictional resistance
through the penetrable soil for developed at the sides of
some distance. The piles transmit the piles equals the load
the load of structure to the coming on the piles.
penetrable soil by means of skin
friction between the soil.

PILES SOFT SOIL

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Compaction Piles
Under certain circumstances, piles are driven in granular soils to achieve
proper compaction of soil close to the ground surface. These piles are
called compaction piles
The lengths of compaction piles depend on factors such as the relative
density of soil before compaction, the desire relative density of soil after
compaction and the required depth of compaction.
Type of Piles based on Installation
Displacement Piles
Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as
vertically as the pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground.
Driven piles are displacement piles because they move some soil laterally;
hence, there is a tendency for the densification of soil surrounding them.
Concrete piles and closed-ended pipe piles are high-displacement piles.
However, steel H-piles displace less soil laterally during driving, and so
they are low-displacement piles.
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Non-Displacement Piles / Replacement Piles
With non-displacement piles (or replacement piles), soil is removed and
the resulting hole filled with concrete or a precast concrete pile is dropped
into the hole and grouted in.
Bored piles are non displacement piles because their placement causes
very little change in the state of stress in the soil.
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Installation of Piles
Dropping weight/ Drop Hammer
The dropping weight or drop hammer is the most used method of insertion
of displacement piles.
A weight approximately half that of the pile is raised a suitable distance
and released to strike the pile head.
Variants of the simple drop hammer are the single acting and double
acting hammers.
These are mechanically driven by steam, by compressed air or
hydraulically.
In the single acting hammer, the weight is raised by compressed air (or
other means) which is then released, and the weight allowed to drop. This
can happen up to 60 times a minute.
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The double acting hammer is the same except compressed air is also used
on the down stroke of the hammer.
The double acting hammer is type of hammer is not always suitable for
driving concrete piles, however.
Although the concrete can take the compressive stresses exerted by the
hammer the shock wave set up by each blow of the hammer can set up
high tensile stresses in the concrete when returning. This can cause the
concrete to fail.
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Diesel Pile Hammers

Diesel Pile hammers work well under hard

driving conditions. They essentially consist of
a ram, an anvil block and a fuel injection
system
The ram is mechanically raised to the top of
the cylinder and released.
A fuel mixture is injected into the cylinder
and compressed by the falling ram.
The fuel is detonated, and the resulting Diesel Pile Hammers

explosion imparts an additional impact to the

pile which is already moving downwards
under the effect of hammer blow. The
explosion also raises the ram, keeping it
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Vibratory Method

Vibratory methods of driving sheet piles or bearing piles are best suited to
sandy or gravel soils.
Vibratory hammers are electrically or hydraulically powered and consists of
contra-rotating eccentric masses within a housing attached to the pile
head.
The eccentric weight during each revolution provide two vertical impulses,
one up and one down.
Vibrators are rarely used in the stiff clay.

Vibratory pile driver

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CAUSES OF FAILURE OF PILES
• Absence of statistical data regarding the nature of soil strata through
which the piles are to be driven.
• Actual load coming on the pile being more than the design load.
• Bad workman ship in case of the cast-in-situ cement concrete piles.
• Breakage due to over driving especially in case of the timber piles.
• Buckling of piles due to removal of side support, inadequate lateral
support, etc.
• Lateral forces (wind, waves, currents etc.) not being taken into the design
of the pile.
• Improper choice of the type of pile.
• Improper choice of the method of driving the pile.
• Improper classification of pile.
• Insufficient reinforcement or misplacement of reinforcement in case of the
R.C.C. piles.
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The bearing capacity of a single piles depends on the structural strength

of pile and the supporting strength of the soil.

Pile capacity as Evaluated by the structural strength of the

pile
Obviously, a pile must be strong enough structurally to carry the load
imposed upon it. A pile’s structural strength depends on its size and
shape as well as the type of material of which it is made.

Pile capacity as evaluated by the supporting strength of

the soil
Different formulae are available to obtain the capacity of piles

Dynamic formulae/Pile driving formulae are developed to calculate

the capacity of pile based on the amount of energy delivered to a pile by
the hammer and resulting penetration of the pile.
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PILE-DRIVING FORMULAS
In theory, it seems possible to calculate pile capacity based on the amount
of energy delivered to a pile by the hammer and resulting penetration of
the pile.
the greater the resistance required to drive a pile; the greater will be the
capacity of the pile to carry load.

Many attempts have been made to develop pile-driving formulas by

equating energy delivered by the hammer to work done by the pile as it
penetrates a certain distance against a certain resistance, with an
allowance made for energy losses.

Generally, no pile-driving formula has been developed that gives accurate

results for pile capacity.

Soil resistance does not remain constant during and after the pile-driving
operation. In addition, pile-driving formulas give varying results.

Although pile-driving formulas are not generally used to determine pile

capacity, they may be used to determine when to stop driving a pile so that
its bearing capacity will be the same as that of a test pile or of other piles
driven in the same subsoil.
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To accomplish this, one should drive piles until the number of blows
required to
drive the last inch is the same as that of the test piles that furnished the
information for evaluating the design load.

However, piles driven in soft silt or clay should all be driven to the same
depth rather than driven a certain number of blows (Terzaghiand Peck,
1967).

Penetration resistance can also be used to prevent pile damage due to

overdriving.

One simple and widely used pile-driving formula is known as the

Engineering-
News formula. It is given as follows (Karol, 1960):
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Where,
WR = weight of the ram
h = height of fall of the ram
S = penetration of the pile per hammer blow
C = a constant

The pile penetration, S, is usually based on the average value obtained

from the last few driving blows. In the equation’s original form, the
following values of C were recommended:

For drop hammers: C = 2.54 cm (if the units of S and h are in centimeters)
For steam hammers: C = 0.254 cm (if the units of S and h are in
centimeters)
with Qa computed in kN if Wr is in kN, H in m, S in
In SI unit
mm/blow, and C= 25 for drop hammers and 2.5 for
steam hammers. The Engineering-News formula has
a built-in factor of safety of 6.
Tests have shown that this formula is not reliable for
computing pile loads, and it should be avoided
except as a rough guide (McCarthy, 2002).
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The design capacity of a 0.3-m-diameter concrete pile is 160 kN. The
pile is driven by a drop hammer with a manufacturer’s hammer energy
rating of 40 kN.m.

Required
Average penetration of the pile from the last few driving blows.
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Another pile-driving formula is known as the Danish formula. It is
given as follows (McCarthy, 2002):

where Qultimate ultimate capacity of the pile

eh efficiency of pile hammer (see Table 1)
Eh manufacturer’s hammer energy rating (see Table 2)
S average penetration of the pile from the last few driving blows
S0 elastic compression of the pile
S0 Table 1
L length of pile
A cross-sectional area of pile
E modulus of elasticity of pile material
Statistical studies indicate that a
factor of safety of 3 should be used
with the Danish formula.
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Table 2
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EXAMPLE
1. The design capacity of a 12-in. steel-pipe pile is 100 kips.
2. The pile’s modulus of elasticity is 29,000 kips/in2.
3. The pile’s length is 40 ft.
4. The pile’s cross-sectional area is 16 in2
5. The hammer is a Vulcan 140C with a weight of pile hammer ram of
14,000 lb
and manufacturer’s hammer energy rating of 36,000 ft-lb.
6. Hammer efficiency is assumed to be 0.80.

Required
1. What should be the average penetration of the pile from the last few
driving
blows?

2. How many blows/ft for the last foot of penetration are required for the
design capacity, using the Danish formula?
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Pile Capacity as Evaluated by the Supporting Strength of the Soil

In addition to the strength of the pile itself, pile capacity is limited by the
soil’s supporting strength. As mentioned previously, the load carried by a
pile is ultimately carry by either or both of two ways.
The load is transmitted to the soil surrounding the pile by friction or
adhesion between the soil and the sides of the pile, and/or the load is
transmitted directly to the soil just below the pile’s tip. This can be
expressed in equation form as follows:

Qultimate Qfriction  Qtip

where Qultimate = ultimate (at failure) bearing capacity of
a single pile

Qfriction = bearing capacity furnished by friction or

adhesion between the soil and piles surface

Qtip = bearing capacity furnished by the soil

just below the pile’s tip.
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The term Qfriction can be evaluated by multiplying the unit skin friction or
adhesion between the soil and the sides of the pile (f) by the pile’s surface
(skin) area (Asurface).

The term Qtip can be evaluated by multiplying the ultimate bearing capacity
of the soil at the tip of the pile (q) by the area of the tip (A tip).hence, the
Q f . A
above Eq. can be expressed as follows:
ultimate  q. A
surface tip

In the case of end-bearing piles, the term Qtip or q xAtip will be

predominant, whereas with friction piles, the term Qfriction or fx Asurface will
be predominant

These Equations are generalized and therefore applicable for all soils.

However, some of the terms in the above Eqs are evaluated differs,
depending on whether the pile is driven in sand or clay. It is convenient,
therefore, to consider separately piles driven in sand and those driven in
clay.
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Piles Driven in Sand
In the case of piles driven in sand, skin friction between the soil and the
sides of the pile [fxAsurface] can be evaluated by multiplying the coefficient of
friction between sand and pile surface (tan δ) by the total horizontal soil
pressure acting on the pile. The coefficient of friction between sand and
pile surface can be obtained from Table 3.

Table 3 The coefficient of friction between

sand and pile surface
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The total horizontal soil pressure acting on

the pile is a function of effective vertical
(overburden) pressure of soil adjacent to
the pile.

Soil pressure normally increases as depth

increases.
In the special case of piles driven in sand,
however, it has been determined that the
effective vertical (overburden) pressure of
soil adjacent to a pile does not increase
without limit as depth increases. Instead,
effective vertical pressure increases as
depth increases until a certain depth of
penetration is reached. Below this depth,
which is called the critical depth and
Variation of effective vertical
denoted Dc’, effective vertical pressure
(overburden) pressure of soil
remains more or less constant. adjacent to a pile with depth
(Meyerhof, G.G., 1976)
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The critical depth is dependent on the
field condition of the sand and the pile’s
size.
Tests indicate that critical depth ranges
from about 10 pile diameters/width for
loose sand to about 20 pile
diameters/width for dense compact
sand (McCarthy, 1977).
Thus, effective vertical pressure of soil
adjacent to a pile varies with depth as
illustrated in Figure

The term fxAsurface can now be determined

for a pile by multiplying the pile’s
circumference by the area under the pv
versus depth curve (see Figure) by the
coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K) by
f.Asurface = (Pile circumference).
the coefficient of friction between sand
(Area under Pv diagram).(K).
and pile surface (tan δ). (tan)
The coefficient of lateral earth pressure is f.Asurface = (D).(Area under Pv
assumed to vary between 0.60 and 1.25, diagram).(K).(tan
with lower values used for silty sands and
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The bearing capacity at the pile tip [q] can

be calculated by using the following
equation:

qtip = pv×Nq*

Where,
pv effective vertical pressure adjacent to
pile’s tip and Nq* bearing capacity factor
from figure. It is related to the angle of
internal friction (φ) of the sand.

Pile capacity thus determined represents

the ultimate load that can be applied to
the pile.
In practice, it is common to apply a factor
of safety of 2 to determine the
(downward) design load for the pile
(McCarthy, 2002). Nq* bearing capacity factor
for piles penetrating into
sand.
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Pile driven in sand - summary

Qultimate  f skin Asurface  qtip Atip

Skin
friction

f skin Asurface  D Area under Pv -depth curve  K tan  

End/tip bearing

qtip Atip  Pv N q Atip

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Example
1. A concrete pile is to be driven into a medium dense to dense sand.
2. The pile’s diameter is 12 in., and its embedded length is 25 ft.
3. Soil conditions are shown in Figure.
4. No groundwater was encountered, and the groundwater table is not
expected to rise during the life of the structure

The pile’s axial capacity if the

coefficient of lateral earth pressure
(K) is assumed to be 0.95, and the
factor of safety (F.S.) is 2.
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The same conditions as in above Example, except that groundwater is
located 10 ft below the ground surface (see Figure)

The pile’s axial

capacity if the
coefficient of lateral
earth pressure (K) is
assumed to be 0.95,
and the factor of
safety (F.S.) is 2.
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Relationship between adhesion factor (
Piles Driven in Clay. and unconfined compressive strength,
The above equation
Qultimate = Qfriction + Qtip
Qultimate = f×Asurface + q×Atip
also applies for piles driven in clay.
Unit adhesion between the soil and
the sides of the pile [f ] can be
evaluated by multiplying the
cohesion of the clay (c) by the
adhesion factor (α).

The adhesion factor (α) can be

determined by using adjoin Figure.
The term fxAsurface of the above Eq.
can thus be evaluated by
multiplying the (undisturbed)
cohesion of the clay (c) by the
adhesion factor (α) by the surface
(skin) area of the pile (Asurface). i.e.
1 ton/ft2 = 95.76
kN/m2
f×Asurface = αcAsurface
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With soft clays, there is a tendency for the clay to come in close contact
with the pile, in which case adhesion is assumed to be equal to cohesion
(meaning α = 1.0).

In the case of stiff clays, pile driving disturbs surrounding soil and may
cause a small open space to develop between the clay and the pile. Thus,
adhesion is smaller than cohesion (meaning α < 1.0).

The bearing capacity [q in the above Eq] at the pile tip can be calculated by
using the following equation (McCarthy, 2002):

qtip = cNc

where qtip is bearing capacity at pile tip c = cohesion of the clay located in
the general vicinity of where the pile tip will ultimately rest
Nc = bearing capacity factor and has a value of about 9 (McCarthy, 2002)

The term qxAtip = cNc .Atip

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Pile driven in Clay - summary

Qultimate  f Asurface  q Atip

Skin friction

f Asurface c Asurface

End/tip bearing

qtip cN c

Qultimate cAsurface  cN c Atip

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Example
A 12 in. diameter concrete pile is
driven at a site as shown in Figure.
The embedded length of the pile is
35 ft. Qdesign =?

Required
GSL
Design capacity of the pile, using a
factor of safety of 2.
Clay

g = 104 lb/ft3
35 ft
qu = 1400
lb/ft2
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Given
A 12 in. diameter concrete pile is
driven at a site as shown in Figure. Qdesign =?

Required
Design capacity of the pile, using a GSL
factor of safety of 2.
Clay

20 ft g = 105 lb/ft3
qu = 1400 lb/ft2

Clay
15 ft
g = 126 lb/ft3
qu = 4000 lb/ft2
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From figure with qu = 1400 Ib/ft2

= 0.7 ton/ft2 α = 0.9

1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2

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From figure with qu = 4000 Ib/ft2
= 2.0 ton/ft2 α = 0.56

1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2

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Example
1. A 0.36-m square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a
clayey soil (see Figure)
2. The design capacity of the pile is 360 kN.

The necessary length of the pile if the factor of safety is 2.

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1 ton/ft2 = 95.76 kN/m2 The required length of the 0.36-m

square pile is 10.4 m.
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PILE LOAD TESTS are performed on

site on test piles to determine or
verify the design capacity of piles.
Normally, piles are designed initially
by analytical or other methods, based
on estimated loads and soil
characteristics
Pile load tests are performed on test
piles during the design stage to check
the design capacity.
If pile load test results indicate
possible bearing failure or excessive
settlement, the pile design should be
revised accordingly.
Also the data collected from pile load
tests develop criteria for foundation
installation.
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Schematic setup for test-pile loading: Using hydraulic

jack acting against anchored reaction frame
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Schematic setup for test-pile loading using weighted

platform.
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Construction
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PROCEDURE:

• The set-up consists of two anchor piles provided with an anchor girder or
reaction girder at their top.

• The test pile is installed between the anchor piles as like foundation pile is
installed. The test pile should be at lest 3B or 2.5m clear from the anchor
pile.

• When pile load test shall be conducted

The test is conducted 3 days after the installation in sandy soils and period
of one month in silts and soft clays.

• Application of Load
The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder or
Truss. The measurement of pile movement are taken with respect to a fixed
reference mark.

The load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of the allowable load
(the load at which the pile will be tested).

Test load = Twice the safe load or the load at which the total settlement
reaches the specified value
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By Reaction Girder or Anchor Girder method
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• How to record settlement
Settlement should be recorded with 3 dial gauges.
• Each stage of the loading is maintained till the rate of movement of the
pile top is not more than
0.1mm per hour in sandy soils and
0.02mm per hour in case of clayey soils
maximum of two hours.
• Time interval to observe settlement
Under each load increment, settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8,
12, 16, 20, 60 minutes and 2 hours.
The last stage of loading will be continued for 24 hours or even more
depending upon the settlement
• The loading should be continued up to twice the safe load or the load at
which the total settlement reaches a specified value.
• How to remove the load
The load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour interval & the final
rebound recorded 24 hours after the entire load has been removed.
• Plot a graph of Load-Settlement and make a curve for loading as well as
unloading obtained from a pile load test.
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Safe load will be least of below
2/3 of the final load at which total settlement is 12 mm
2/3 of the load corresponding to a net settlement of 6 mm
1/2 of load corresponding to a total settlement of (B/10) (7.5% incase of
under- reamed pile)

The limiting criteria (sometimes specified)

Under the total load (twice the safe load)
The net settlement should not be more than 20 mm
The gross settlement should not be more than 25 mm
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The allowable pile load is generally determined based on criteria specified

by
applicable building codes.
There are many building codes and therefore many criteria for
determining allowable pile loads based on pile tests.
It is, of course, the responsibility of engineers to follow criteria specified
by the applicable building code.
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Example

1. A 12-in.-diameter pipe pile with a length of 50 ft was subjected to a

pile
load test.
2. The test results were plotted and the load-settlement curve is shown
in
Figure.
3. The local building code states that the allowable pile load is taken as
one half of that load that produces a net settlement of not more than
0.01
in./ton but in no case more than 0.75 in.

Allowable pile load.

Solution

Net settlement = Gross settlement – Rebound

Because a test load of 200 tons produces a net settlement of 0.72 in.
and the maximum allowable settlement is 0.75 in.,

Allowable pile load = 200 tons/2 = 100 tons

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Given
The same conditions as in the above example, except that another
local building code is to be applied as follows: “The allowable pile load
shall be not more than one-half of that test load that produces a net
settlement per ton of test load of not more than 0.01 in., but in no case
more than 0.5 inch.”
Required
Allowable pile load.
From the above example

Because a test load of 150 tons produces a net settlement of 0.32

in. and the maximum allowable settlement is 0.5 in.,
Allowable pile load = 150 tons/2 = 75 tons
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Some building codes use a “breaking in the curve” or the point defined
by tangents drawn on either side of a break of a load–settlement graph.

One building code states that the design load on piles may be
determined by the designer based on an analysis of the results of pile
load tests performed in accordance with ASTM D-1143.

The allowable pile load shall be determined by the application of a safety

factor of 2 to the ultimate pile capacity as determined by the
intersection of the initial and final tangents to a curve fitted to the
plotted results of the pile load test. The fitted curve shall not extend to
any point at which the pile continued to move under the applied load.
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Required
Assuming that the building
code given just prior to this
example is applicable, find
the allowable load on the
pile.
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To construct a pre-stressed bridge, a 30 cm diameter pile of length 12 m
was subjected to a pile load test and the following results were obtained.

Determine the allowable load

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Pile Groups

So far we discussed the capacity of single piles. But in reality, piles are
almost always arranged in group of three or more.

The group of piles is commonly tied together by a pile cap, which is

attached to the head of individual piles and cause several piles to act
together as a pile foundation.

If two piles are driven close together, soil stresses caused by the piles tend
to overlap; and the bearing capacity of the pile group consisting of two
piles is less than the sum of individual capacities.

If the two piles are moved further apart, so that the individual stresses do
not overlap, bearing capacity of the pile group is not reduced significantly
from the sum of individual capacities.

Thus it would appear that the piles should be spaced relatively far apart.
This consideration is offset.
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When piles are placed in a group,
there is a possibility the pressure
isobars of adjacent piles will
overlap each other as shown
in Fig. (b).

The soil is highly stressed in the

zones of overlapping of
pressures.

With sufficient overlap, either the

soil will fail or the pile group will
settle excessively since the
combined pressure bulb extends
to a considerable depth below
the base of the piles.

It is possible to avoid overlap by

installing the piles further apart
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Minimum allowable pile spacing is often specified by applicable building
codes.

For example, a building code may state that “the minimum center-to-center
spacing of pile

Piles not Driven to Rock shall be not less than twice the average diameter
of a round pile, nor less than 1.75 times the diagonal dimension of a
rectangular or rolled structural steel pile, nor less than 2 ft 6 in. (0.76 m)

Piles Driven to Rock, the minimum center-to-center spacing of piles shall

be not less than twice the average diameter of a round pile, nor less than
1.75 times the diagonal dimension of a rectangular or rolled structural steel
pile, nor less than 2 ft 0 in. (0.61 m)
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Typical pile grouping patterns

for (a) single footings and

(b) foundation walls.

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Efficiency OF Pile Groups

The capacity of a pile group may be less than the sum of the individual
capacities of the piles making up the group.

In as much as it would be convenient to estimate the capacity of a group of

piles based on the capacity of a single pile, attempts have been made to
determine the efficiency of pile groups.

Efficiency of a pile group is the capacity of a pile group divided by the sum
of the individual capacities of the piles making up the group.
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In the case where a pile group is comprised of end-bearing piles

resting on bedrock (or on a layer of dense sand and gravel overlying

bedrock), an efficiency of 1.0 may be assumed (Jumikis, 1971).

(In other words, the group of n piles will carry n times the capacity of a
single pile.) An efficiency of 1.0 is also often assumed by designers for
friction piles driven in cohesionless soil.

For a pile group composed of friction piles driven in cohesive soil , an

efficiency of less than 1.0 is to be expected because stresses from
individual piles build up and reduce the capacity of the pile group.
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One equation that has been used to compute pile-group efficiency is known
as
the Converse–Labarre equation (Jumikis, 1971):
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Given
1. A pile group consists of 12 friction piles in cohesive soil (see Figure).
2. Each pile’s diameter is 12 in., and center-to-center spacing is 3 ft.
3. By means of a load test, the ultimate load of a single pile was found to
be
100 kips

Required
Design capacity of the pile group, using the Converse–Labarre equation.
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