Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished).
In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13%
coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.2% from
hydroelectricity.
New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels)
accounted for another 2.7% and are growing very rapidly.
The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 18%, with 15% of global
electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables.
Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides,
plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:
1. Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished
constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat
generated deep within the earth.
2. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind,
ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and
hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: power generation,
hot water/ space heating, transport fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services:
Power generation
Renewable energy provides 18 percent of total electricity generation worldwide.
Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone
already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas: for example, 14 percent
in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein,
and 20 percent in Denmark.
Some countries get most of their power from renewables, including Iceland (100
percent), Brazil (85 percent), Austria (62 percent), New Zealand (65 percent), and
Sweden (54 percent)
Heating
Solar hot water makes an important contribution in many countries, most notably in
China.
Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a
portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China.
Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water
heating needs of over 70 million households.
The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of
biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is also growing
rapidly.
Transport fuels
1. Renewable biofuels have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the
United States since 2006.
2. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent
of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline
production .
Growth of renewables
1. During the five-years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable
energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies.
2. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009
relative to the previous four years.
3. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable
technology. However, grid-connected PV increased the fastest of all renewables
technologies, with a 60-percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.
Selected renewable energy indicators
Selected global indicators 2007 2008 2009
Investment in new renewable capacity (annual) 104 130 150 billion
USD
Existing renewables power capacity, 1,070 1,140 1,230 GWe
including large-scale hydro
Existing renewables power capacity, 240 280 305 GWe
excluding large hydro
Wind power capacity (existing) 94 121 159 GWe
Solar PV capacity (grid-connected) 7.6 13.5 21 GWe
Solar hot water capacity 126 149 180 GWth
Ethanol production (annual) 50 69 76 billion liters
Biodiesel production (annual) 10 15 17 billion liters
Countries with policy targets for renewable energy use 68 75 85
Mainstream forms of renewable energy
1. Wind power
2. Hydropower
3. Solar energy
4. Biomass
5. Biofuels
6. Geothermal energy
Solar energy travels from the sun to the earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
There are many forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as ultrasonic waves, radio
waves, infrared radiation (heat), visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, gamma rays, and
cosmic rays. These different forms of electromagnetic radiation are all characterized by
their wavelength, λ, and frequency, µ .
All electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light, c, so the product of
wavelength and frequency for any type of electromagnetic radiation equals the speed of
light. That is:
In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wave – the
distance over which the wave's shape repeats. It is usually determined by considering
the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as
crests, troughs, or zero crossings.
Frequency
frequency Number of waves that pass a fixed point per unit time.
In SI units, the unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz
1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second. A previous name for this unit was
cycles per second.
Thus long wavelength electromagnetic radiation has a low frequency and short
wavelength electromagnetic radiation has a high frequency.
When solar radiation strikes any object, one or more of three things must happen to it.
The radiation will be absorbed, reflected, and/or transmitted through the object
depending upon the nature of the surface.
If the object is smooth and shiny like a mirror, then most of the radiation will be reflected.
If the surface has a dark colored, dull, matte finish, then almost all of the radiation will be
absorbed, thus heating the object. If the surface is transparent or translucent to
electromagnetic radiation of the wavelength striking it, then it will be completely or
partially transmitted through and continue until it strikes something else.
The reflected fraction of incident radiation is called the reflectance, r. The absorbed
fraction is called the absorbance, a, and the transmitted fraction is called the
transmittance, t. All the incident radiation must be accounted for by the sum of these
three fractions, thus:
The earth at 93X 106 miles( 1.49 X 1011meters) from the sun, makes a complete
revolution about the sun once per year.
The earth itself rotates on its north-south axis once every 24 hours , which accounts for
night and day.
The variations in solar intensity over day and night, summer and winter, as well as
changing cloud cover complicate the use of solar energy.
The power density at the top of the atmosphere on the side of the earth directly facing
the sun is 2 cal/min.cm2.This number is known as the solar constant.
The average value of power density on the earth’s upper atmosphere is considerably
smaller than the solar constant i.e about 0.5 cal/min.cm2.
The solar radiation impinging on the upper atmosphere does not all reach the earth
because it is partially absorbed and scattered by the atmospheric gases and clouds.
On an average about 47 % of the solar power incident on the upper atmosphere reaches
the ground and can be utilized in some fashion.
Upper atmosphere
The part of the atmosphere above the troposphere
To put available solar power in to more useful units, the average on a horizontal area of
1meter by 1meter at the earth’s surface is given as
0.5 cal/min.cm2=350 W/m2
This is the average value for a 24 hour day.
The average for an 8 hour day could be 600 W/m2 =1520 Btu/ft2.day
Estimate the gross amount of solar energy incident on the Sultanate of Oman in a
year.
Solution:
Area of the Sultanate: 119,498 sq mi
Total Per Capita Energy Consumption (2008), 249.78 million Btus
Methods of Utilizing Solar Energy
There are numerous “behind the scenes” ways that solar energy keeps us alive on the
surface of the earth, such as driving photosynthesis, which directly or indirectly produces
all of our food; driving the hydrological cycle, which produces precipitation and keeps the
rivers running; and simply keeping the temperature within a range at which we can
survive on the surface of the earth.
The primary intent of this section, however, is to briefly discuss the major ways that solar
energy is converted to other usable forms.
Three methods of utilizing solar energy will be discussed here:
(1)Solar space heating, (2)Solar water heating and (3)Solar generation of
electricity.
Solar space heating
Solar space heating can be accomplished with active solar heating systems or
passive solar heating systems.
Active Solar heating
A system that uses energy from sunlight to heat a structure and/or provide hot water.
Contrasted with passive solar heating by the use of pumps or fans to move the energy-
transporting medium through the system. Installation of active solar heating equipment is
eligible for certain income tax credits.
Active Solar Space Heating
Homes with active solar energy systems for
space heating use mechanical equipment such
as pumps, fans, and blowers to help with the
collection, storage, and distribution of heat
throughout the house. Active solar space heating
systems use solar collectors to capture the
Sun's energy.
There are two basic types of active solar heating
systems based on the type of fluid heated inside
the solar collector: liquid systems and air
Active solar heating Air System
An active solar heating air system uses solar collectors (usually on the roof of the
building) to heat a fluid (usually air).
A blower is used to draw the air through the collector thus heating it. The heated air is
used to heat the living space or is sent to a heat storage area, perhaps a bed or rocks.
During the night and on cloudy days, heated air is moved from the heat storage area to
the space to be heated.
Flat Plate Collector System
A flat-plate solar collector is one of three main types of solar collectors, which are key
components of active solar heating systems.
The other main types are evacuated tube collectors and batch solar heaters .
Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collectors for use in
solar water-heating systems in homes and in solar space heating.
A flat-plate collector consists basically of an insulated metal box with a glass or plastic
cover (the glazing) and a dark-colored absorber plate.
Solar radiation is absorbed by the absorber plate and transferred to a fluid that circulates
through the collector in tubes.
In an air-based collector the circulating fluid is air, whereas in a liquid-based collector it is
usually water.
Flat-plate collectors heat the circulating fluid to a temperature considerably less than that
of the boiling point of water and are best suited to applications where the demand
temperature is 30-70°C (86-158°F) and/or for applications that require heat during the
winter months.
Air-based collectors are typically used for heating buildings and drying crops.
A Flat Plate Collector System
A Flat Plate Collector System
Home Space Heating
A Flat Plate Collector System
Example
Estimate the collector surface area needed to heat 100
gallons of water a day from 500F to 1200F when the daily
insolation is 1000 Btu/ft2. assume an efficiency of 50%.
A Flat Plate Collector System
Solution
1 Btu will heat one pound of water by 1 0F, and a gallon of
water weights about 8 pounds, then:
gal 8Ib 1Btu Btu
heat energy needed 100 x x x70 F 56000
day 1gal F.Ib day
Because efficiency is 50% , there must be twice the needed
amount or 112000 Btu of solar energy incident on the
collector each day. The required area then :
112000 Btu/day
2
112 square feet of collector
1000 Btu/ft .day
Or about 5 panels each 3x8 feet
Passive solar heating system
1. Passive solar technologies are means of using sunlight for useful energy without
use of active mechanical systems
2. A passive solar heating system uses south-facing glazing, such as windows or
attached sunspace glazing, to bring the solar radiation into the building.
3. The solar radiation may heat the living space directly and at least some of it is
typically stored in components of the building such as masonry walls and floors. At
night and on cloudy days, the stored heat will be released to the living space.
4. No fans or blowers are used in a completely passive system. The heat flow is by
natural convection (rising of heated air), conduction and radiation.
Note:
For example, having most of your home's windows facing south will enable your home to have maximum
exposure to the Sun's radiant energy.
Passive Solar Heating with a Sunspace
Passive Solar
Example
a)Calculate the amount of of solar energy in Btu that would
come in a double glazed window of 100 ft 2. 16464 Btu per
square feet will be incident on the window that day. Assume
75% of the incident light is transmitted.
b)If the conductive heat loss from inside to outside that day
is 480 Btu per square feet. How many Btu are lost by
conduction that day.
c)Find the net solar gain
Passive Solar
Solution
a) Btu 2 Btu
1646 x100 ft x 0.75 123450
ft 2 .day day
b) The heat lost by conduction that day is:
Btu
480 2 x100 ft 2 48000 Btu
ft
c) The net gain for one day for 100 ft2 window is:
123450 – 48000 = 75450 Btu.
Solar Thermal Electric Power generation
An obvious application of solar energy is the production of electric power by using the
sun to boil water steam, which then could be used to drive an electric generator.
A major problem in making use of a diffuse source of energy such as the sun attaining
the necessary high temperature of the working substance in order to achieve a
reasonable efficiency.
The high temperature can be achieved by focusing solar energy falling on a relatively
large area to a spot or focus on much smaller area.
There are two general categories of proven solar thermal electric power generating
devices.
Both involves focusing the sunlight to attain high temperature.
The first often called the Solar power tower, uses a large array of many reflectors to
concentrate the light on to a single central receiver mounted on a tower within the array
of reflectors. This results in a very high temperature at the receiver.
A heat transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate steam, which, in turn, is
used in a conventional turbine-generator to produce electricity.
Early power towers such as the Solar One plant uses steam as the heat transfer fluid.
Current power towers such as Solar Two use molten nitrate salt. Nitrate salt is used
because of its superior heat transfer and energy storage capabilities.
Solar power tower
In a second general type of power system, many concentrating reflectors are used, but
each reflector focuses sunlight on to an individual receiver for the collector.
The heated circulating fluid is then brought to a central location to drive a steam engine.
The Direct Conversion of Solar Energy to Electrical Energy
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of cells
containing a photovoltaic material.
Materials presently used for Photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline
silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulfide.
Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar
cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
How does photovoltaic Cells works
Solve the Following Examples
1. What collector area is needed for the system to provide the necessary space heating
for a home having 2000 ft2 of floor area? Assume an average daily insolation of
1000Btu/ft2 and an efficiency of 50%. Also assume that the house requires 50 million
Btu per thousand square feet of floor area for the 180 day heating session.
2. A car wash needs 1200 gallons of warm water a day heated from 50oF to 100oF. How
large a solar collector would be needed to do this? The incident solar energy is 1100
Btu/ft2 each day and the collector efficiency is 50 %.
3. Design an array of individual solar cells that would produce 120 volts DC.
4. A passive solar home has energy stored in a concrete floor of 1000 ft2 area. How
thick should this floor be to store 200000 Btu with a temperature swing of 20 oF.
Given that the home has a floor area of 2000 ft2, the total heat required for
the 180 day heating season can be calculated as follows:
Total heat required = (50 million Btu / 1000 ft2) x 2000 ft2 x 180 days = 9
billion Btu
Collector area = (Total heat required / (Average daily insolation x Efficiency))
/ Number of days in a year
Collector area = (9 billion Btu / (1000 Btu/ft2 x 50%)) / 365 days = 98,630 ft2
Q = m x Cp x ΔT
Q = 200,000 Btu Cp = 0.2 Btu/lb·°F (specific heat of concrete) ΔT = 20°F
The mass of the concrete can be calculated as:
m = Q / (Cp x ΔT)
Substituting the values, we get:
m = 200,000 Btu / (0.2 Btu/lb·°F x 20°F) = 50,000 lb
V=Axd
V = 1000 ft2 x d
m=Vxρ
where ρ is the density of the concrete.
m = 1000 ft2 x d x 150 lb/ft3
50,000 lb = 1000 ft2 x d x 150 lb/ft3
Solving for d, we get:
d = 50,000 lb / (1000 ft2 x 150 lb/ft3) = 0.33 ft
