Measurement: ICSE Grade

9 Physics
Welcome to our exploration of measurement in physics. This
fundamental concept forms the backbone of scientific inquiry and
practical applications.

We'll cover everything from historical origins to modern

techniques, with a focus on ICSE board examination requirements.

Made with LOVE By Salman Thakur

Why Study Measurement?
Scientific Foundation Experimental Accuracy Technological Progress
Measurement forms the Precise measurements enable Modern technology relies on
bedrock of all physics and reliable experiments. This increasingly precise
scientific disciplines. Without leads to consistent, measurements. From
it, we cannot verify theories. reproducible results. smartphones to space travel,
measurement matters.
What is Measurement?
Definition Key Components
Measurement is the • Magnitude: numerical value
quantitative comparison of • Unit: standard reference
a physical quantity with a
• Accuracy: closeness to
chosen standard unit.
true value

Purpose
Measurements allow us to describe physical phenomena
mathematically and make predictions about behavior.
History of Measurement:
Ancient Times
Ancient Egypt (3000 BCE)
The cubit was based on the forearm length. It was used
in constructing the pyramids with remarkable precision.

Ancient Rome (500 BCE)

The Roman foot (pes) became a standard unit. Twelve
unciae (inches) made one foot.

Ancient Trade (2000 BCE)

Weight standards developed for commerce. Precious
metals were weighed against standard stones.
Medieval to Modern
Measurement
Medieval Period
Each kingdom had its own measurement standards. This created
confusion in trade and science.

Industrial Revolution
Machine production required standardized measurements. Precision
engineering emerged as a discipline.

French Revolution (1795)

The metric system was born. It was designed as a rational, decimal-
based system.

International Standardization
Countries gradually adopted metric standards. The need for global
standards became apparent.
SI Units: The Global Language
Established 1960 Global Adoption
2
The Système International d'Unités Nearly all countries use SI units for
(SI) was formally adopted. science and trade.

Scientific Use Consistency

All scientific journals and research use SI units maintain consistent
SI units exclusively.
4 3 relationships through physical
constants.
Base and Derived Units
Base Units Derived Units

• Length: meter (m) • Speed: meter per second (m/s)

• Mass: kilogram (kg) • Force: newton (N)
• Time: second (s) • Energy: joule (J)
• Temperature: kelvin (K) • Pressure: pascal (Pa)
• Electric current: ampere (A) • Electric potential: volt (V)
• Luminous intensity: candela (cd)
• Amount of substance: mole (mol)
Fundamental Physical
Quantities
Length Mass Time
Measured in Measured in Measured in
meters (m). kilograms (kg). seconds (s).
Describes Describes the Describes
distance and amount of duration
dimensions of matter in an between events.
objects. object.

Temperature
Measured in
kelvin (K).
Describes
thermal energy
of a system.
The remaining base quantities are electric current (ampere), luminous
intensity (candela), and amount of substance (mole).
Derived Quantities
Velocity
Displacement per unit time (m/s)

Acceleration
Change in velocity per unit time (m/s²)

Volume
Three-dimensional space (m³)

Area
Two-dimensional space (m²)

Density
Mass per unit volume (kg/m³)
Importance of Standard Units
Global Communication Reproducibility
Scientists can share data worldwide. No conversion or Experiments can be reproduced accurately. Results
confusion occurs between countries. remain consistent across different laboratories.

International Projects Educational Clarity

Complex endeavors like space exploration succeed. Students learn one consistent system. Knowledge
Components from different nations work together transfers easily between subjects and levels.
perfectly.
The Meter: Evolution &
Redefinition
1791
Originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from North Pole to
Equator through Paris.

1889
Standardized as the distance between marks on a platinum-iridium bar
kept in France.

1960
Redefined using wavelength of krypton-86 radiation for greater precision.

1983
Current definition: distance light travels in vacuum during
1/299,792,458 of a second.
The Kilogram: Redefined
International Prototype (1889)
For 130 years, mass was defined by a platinum-iridium
cylinder kept in France. It was the last physical artifact
standard.
The Problem
The prototype was changing mass very slightly over time.
This tiny difference affected scientific precision worldwide.

Planck Constant Definition (2019)

The kilogram is now defined by fixing the value of
Planck's constant. The Kibble balance relates mass to
electromagnetic force.
Time Measurement: The Second
Ancient Methods
Based on astronomical observations

Mechanical Clocks
Based on Earth's rotation (1/86,400 of a day)

Modern Definition (1967)

3 9,192,631,770 periods of cesium-133 radiation

The atomic definition of the second is so precise that the best atomic clocks wouldn't gain or lose a second in over
100 million years!
 Temperature: Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit

Celsius (°C) Kelvin (K)

Water freezes at 0°C, boils at Scientific scale starting at
100°C at standard pressure. absolute zero (-273.15°C). No
Common in everyday use. degrees symbol used. SI unit.

Fahrenheit (°F)
Conversion
Water freezes at 32°F, boils at
K = °C + 273.15; °F = (°C × 9/5) + 32
212°F. Common in US.
Converting Units: The Basics
Original Unit Conversion New Unit Example
Factor

cm × 0.01 m 250 cm = 2.5 m

g × 0.001 kg 750 g = 0.75 kg

km × 1000 m 3.5 km =
3500 m

mL × 0.001 L 125 mL =
0.125 L

Always check your answer's reasonableness. Converting to a smaller unit

yields a larger number, and vice versa.
Prefixes in SI Units

Nano (10⁻⁹) Kilo (10³) Micro (10⁻⁶)

A nanometer (nm) is one billionth of A kilometer (km) is one thousand A micrometer (μm) is one millionth
a meter. DNA is about 2.5 nm wide. meters. It's commonly used for of a meter. Human hair is about 70
measuring distances between μm thick.
locations.
Conversion of Complex Units

Speed: m/s to km/h Speed: km/h to m/s Density: g/cm³ to kg/m³

Multiply by 3.6: (m/s) × 3.6 = km/h Divide by 3.6: (km/h) ÷ 3.6 = m/s Multiply by 1000: (g/cm³) × 1000 =
kg/m³

Complex unit conversions involve ratios. Remember that the top and bottom of fractions may need different conversion factors.
Physical Instruments: Rulers & Tapes
Least Count Parallax Error
The smallest division on a measuring scale. Standard Error caused by viewing the scale from an angle. Always
rulers have 1 mm least count. view perpendicular to the scale.

Zero Error Practical Example

When the zero mark is damaged or worn. Always check When measuring a notebook, align with the zero mark
before measuring. and read the value at the other edge.
Vernier Caliper: Principle &
Use
Principle
Uses main scale and sliding vernier scale to increase precision. The
vernier has divisions slightly smaller than the main scale.

Reading Process
Note main scale reading before zero of vernier. Add vernier
reading where a line aligns perfectly with main scale.

Precision
Typical least count is 0.1 mm or 0.05 mm. More precise than a
standard ruler by factor of 10.

Applications
Measuring diameter, thickness, depth of small objects.
Ideal for engineering and manufacturing.
Screw Gauge: Principle & Use

The screw gauge uses the principle of a precisely machined screw thread. One complete rotation advances the
spindle by exactly one pitch, typically 0.5 mm or 1 mm.
Measuring Mass: Balances
Physical (Beam) Balance Electronic Balance

• Uses comparison of masses • Uses electromagnetic force

• Standard weights needed • Digital readout display
• Sensitive to air currents • Self-calibrating
• Common in chemistry labs • Modern standard in labs
• Precision: 0.01g typical • Precision: 0.001g possible

Balances should be used on level surfaces away from vibrations. Calibration should be checked regularly.
Measuring Time: Stopwatch &
Clocks
Analog Stopwatch
Traditional mechanical device with sweeping hands. Typically accurate to
0.2 seconds due to reaction time.

Digital Stopwatch
Electronic with LCD display. Can measure to 0.01 second precision. Widely
used in sports.

Reaction Time
Human reaction causes 0.1-0.3 second error. Practice reduces this factor
in measurements.

Application
When timing a 100m sprint, start the watch on the gunshot and stop as
runner crosses finish.
Measuring Volume: Liquids and Solids

Measuring Liquid Volume Irregular Solid Volume Regular Solid Volume

Use graduated cylinders, pipettes, Use water displacement. Record Measure dimensions with ruler or
or burettes. Read the bottom of the initial water level, then submerge caliper. Calculate using appropriate
meniscus curve at eye level. object and record new level. geometric formula.
Measuring Temperature:
Thermometers

Mercury Alcohol Thermometer Digital Thermometer

Thermometer
Uses thermistor or
Traditional glass tube with Uses colored alcohol. thermocouple. Fast
mercury. Range: -30°C to Range: -115°C to 78°C. response time. Used in
300°C. Being phased out Safer alternative to medical and laboratory
due to mercury toxicity. mercury. settings.

Infrared
Thermometer
Non-contact
measurement. Detects
thermal radiation. Used for
distant or moving objects.
Errors in Measurement
Systematic Errors Random Errors

• Zero error in instruments • Fluctuating readings

• Calibration issues • Environmental factors
• Personal bias • Observation limitations
• Consistent direction • Unpredictable direction
• Can be corrected with calibration • Reduced by taking multiple readings

Good scientific practice involves identifying, minimizing, and accounting for both types of errors in measurements.
Significant Figures & Precision
1 Identify Significant Figures
All non-zero digits are significant. Zeros between non-zero digits are
significant. Trailing zeros after decimal are significant.

2 Addition/Subtraction Rule
Result has same decimal precision as least precise measurement.
Examples: 12.2 + 3.456 = 15.7

3 Multiplication/Division Rule
Result has same number of significant figures as measurement with
fewest significant figures.

4 Rounding
Round only at the final step of a calculation. Don't introduce rounding
errors in intermediate steps.
Board Focus: Common
Measurement Questions
One-Mark Questions Two-Mark Questions
• Define least count • Calculate significant figures
• State SI unit of a quantity • Convert complex units
• Convert between simple units • Read vernier or micrometer
• Name appropriate scales
measuring device • Identify types of errors

Application Questions
• Determine volume by displacement
• Calculate actual value from measurements with error
• Identify appropriate measuring instrument
Application Question 1: Length Measurement
Question
Calculate the length of a pen using a ruler with mm markings.

Tools Required
Ruler with millimeter divisions (least count: 1 mm)

Method
Align pen with zero mark. Read the value at the other end.

Specify the precision based on the least count. Report the answer with proper units. Estimate between the smallest
divisions if possible.
Answer & Explanation:
Length Measurement
Step 1: Alignment
Place pen along ruler with one end at zero mark. Ensure straight
alignment without gaps.

Step 2: Reading
Read the value at the other end of the pen: 14.7 cm or 147 mm.

Step 3: Error Estimation

With 1 mm least count, the measurement uncertainty is
±0.5 mm. Reported as 14.7 ± 0.05 cm.

Step 4: Significant Figures

Report with three significant figures: 14.7 cm. This
reflects the precision of the measurement.
Application Question 2: Mass Measurement

Question Tools Required

Find the mass of five marbles Electronic balance (precision:
using a balance and record 2 0.01g), container for marbles
possible errors.

Method
Calculation
Divide total mass by five to find
4 Tare the balance with empty

average mass per marble.

3 container, then add all five
marbles and record mass.
Answer & Explanation: Mass
Measurement
Step 1: Calibration
Ensure balance is calibrated and reading zero. Place empty
container on balance and press tare.

Step 2: Measurement
Add five marbles to container. Record mass: 25.65 g

Step 3: Calculation
Average mass = Total mass ÷ Number of marbles = 25.65 g ÷ 5
= 5.13 g per marble

Step 4: Error Analysis

Possible errors: balance calibration, air currents, or variations in
marble sizes. Uncertainty: ±0.01 g.
Application Question 3: Volume of Irregular Object
Question 2 Tools Required
Determine the volume of an irregular stone using the Graduated cylinder, water, thread, irregular stone
water displacement method.

3 Method 4 Calculation
Record initial water level. Submerge stone completely. Volume of stone = Final water level - Initial water level
Record new water level.
Answer & Explanation:
Volume of Irregular Object
Step 1: Initial Reading
Fill cylinder with water to easily readable level. Record initial volume: 50.0 mL

Step 2: Immersion
Tie thread around stone. Lower stone completely into water without
touching cylinder walls.

Step 3: Final Reading

Record new water level: 73.5 mL. Ensure no air bubbles are
trapped on stone surface.

Step 4: Calculation
Volume of stone = 73.5 mL - 50.0 mL = 23.5 mL = 23.5 cm³

The volume of a submerged object equals the volume of displaced fluid.

This is based on Archimedes' Principle.
Application Question 4: Unit
Conversion

Question Given Required

Conversions
Convert 2500 cm to Length = 2500 cm
meters and 1 m = 100 cm; 1 km
kilometers. = 1000 m

Approach
Use conversion
factors to change
units while
maintaining the same
physical quantity.
Answer & Explanation: Unit Conversion
Centimeters to Meters Meters to Kilometers

2500 cm = 2500 cm × (1 m / 100 cm) = 25 m 25 m = 25 m × (1 km / 1000 m) = 0.025 km

The conversion factor 1 m / 100 cm = 0.01 m/cm The conversion factor 1 km / 1000 m = 0.001 km/m

So we multiply 2500 cm × 0.01 m/cm = 25 m So we multiply 25 m × 0.001 km/m = 0.025 km

Therefore, 2500 cm = 25 m = 0.025 km. All three measurements represent the same physical length.
Higher-Order Thinking Question

Q: Why is it critically important for scientists worldwide to agree on common measurement standards? Explain using
historical examples of when measurement discrepancies caused problems.
Answer: Importance of Common Standards

Global Communication

1 Scientific knowledge can be shared accurately

Result Verification
Experiments can be reproduced and verified

International Trade
Common standards facilitate fair commerce

Prevent Disasters
The 1999 Mars Climate Orbiter crashed due to metric/imperial
confusion
Board Exam Key Tips
Diagram Clarity
Draw neat, properly labeled diagrams. Use a pencil and ruler for
straight lines.

Unit Inclusion
Always include units with numerical answers. You'll lose marks
without them.

Show Working
Present all calculation steps clearly. Even with wrong final answer,
correct steps earn marks.

Appropriate Precision
Report answers with significant figures matching the data's
precision. Don't overstate accuracy.
Common Mistakes & How to Avoid Them
Missing Units Significant Figure Errors
Always write units with numerical values. Answers Don't carry extra digits beyond measurement precision.
without units receive partial or no credit. Remember the rules for calculations.

Parallax Errors Conversion Mistakes

View scales directly perpendicular to avoid misreading. Double-check conversion factors. Write out dimensional
Your eye should be level with the measurement. analysis to track units throughout calculations.
Summary & Interactive Q&A

7
Base SI Units
Forming the foundation of all measurements

3
Key Applications
Length, mass, and volume measurement techniques

2
Error Types
Systematic and random errors in all measurements

1960
SI Introduction
Year the modern measurement system was established

We've covered the fundamentals of measurement from historical origins to modern applications. Questions or areas
needing clarification?