Microprocessor

2nd class- 2nd course 2024/2025

 Microprocessor based personal computer

 Memory system

 I/O system

 Parallel processing

 Parallel computing
 Microcomputers
Microcomputer: small computers, also called personal computers (PC), can fit next to a desk or on a
desktop, or can be carried around.
 They are either standalone machines or are connected to a computer network
such as a local area network LAN.
 LAN connects, usually by special cable, a group of desktop PCs and other devices, such as
printers, in an office or a building.
Microcomputers Types
1. Desktop PCs: are those in which the case or main housing sits on a desk, with keyboard in front and monitor
(screen) often on top.
2. Tower PCs: are those Microcomputer in which the case sits as a "tower," often on the floor beside a desk, thus
freeing up desk surface space.
3. Laptop computers (notebook computers): are lightweight portable computers with built-in monitor, keyboard,
hard-disk drive, battery, and AC adapter that can be plugged into an electrical outlet; their weight anywhere
from 1.8 to 9 pounds.
4. Personal digital assistants (PDAs) (handheld computers or palmtops) combine personal organization tools-
schedule planners, address books, to-do lists. Some are able to send e-mail and faxes. Some PDAs have
touch-sensitive screens. Some also connect to desktop computers for sending or receiving information.

5. Microcontrollers-tiny computers: Microcontrollers, also called embedded computers, are the tiny, specialized
microprocessors installed in "smart" appliances and automobiles. These microcontrollers enable PDAs,
microwave ovens, for example, to store data about how long to cook your potatoes and at what
temperature.
The Microprocessor-Based Personal Computer System
 Machines that once filled large areas have been reduced to small desktop computer
systems
 Companies such as DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation, now owned by Hewlett-Packard
Company) have stopped producing mainframe computer systems in order to concentrate
their resources on microprocessor-based computer systems.
 PC consists of three main blocks which are: microprocessor, memory system and I/O systems

 The PC blocks are interconnected by buses.

 A bus is a set of common connections that carry the same type of information.
The Microprocessor-Based Personal Computer System
Memory system
 There are two types of memory in the microcomputer system

 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM): is a type of memory that can be programmed once
and can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
 Random-Access Memory (RAM): (RW/M:)is a type of memory that can be both read and written to. RAM
can change as a program executes.
 The memory structure of Intel-microprocessor based PC system is divided into three main parts: TPA
(transient program area), system area, and XMS (extended memory system)
 The first 1M byte of memory the real memory because the Intel microprocessor is often designed to
function in this area in its real mode of operation.

 Extended memory contains up to 15M bytes in microprocessor-based computer in addition to the first 1M
byte of real memory.

 The TPA holds the DOS (disk operating system) operating system and other programs that control the
computer system. The TPA also stores any currently active or inactive application programs.
Memory system
I/O system
 The microcomputer system contains input and output (I/O) devices that allow the system to interact with the external
environment.
 The microcomputer system has 8 data lines, D0-D7, which are bidirectional and common to all devices.

 The microcomputer system generates four control signals: memory read, memory write, I/O read, and I/O write. These
signals are connected to different peripheral devices

 I/O devices type:

 Pointing devices

 Composite devises

 Game Controller

 Visual devices

 Audio Input devices

• CPU speed is determined by a clock cycle, which is the time between two rising edges of a periodic clock
signal.

• The higher number of pulses per second, the faster the processor.

• The clock speed is measured in Hz, often either MHz (megahertz) or GHz (gigahertz). For example, a 4
GHz processor performs 4,000,000,000 clock cycles per second.
Computer performance
• Instructions Per Cycle (IPC):

•IPC it measures how many instructions a CPU is capable of executing in a single clock.

•The performance of a processor can be measured by calculating the average number of Clock cycles Per Instruction (CPI). The
instruction set of a given machine consists of a number of instruction categories:

•ALU (simple assignment and arithmetic and logic instructions).

•Load and store.

•Branch.

•Others.
In the case that the CPI for each instruction category is known, the overall CPI can be computed as:
Computer performance
Example: Use the CPI to measure the performance of a computer, which records the following metrics when you run a set
of benchmarking programs.

Solution:

Instruction count = 38+15+42+5 =100

MIPS is a measure of a processor's speed, providing a standard for representing the number of instructions that
a CPU can process in one second.

The number is meant to indicate how well a computer performs and how much work it can do.

Example:

• Use MIPS to measure the performance of a computer for which the following metrics are recorded when running a set of
benchmarking programs. Assume that the clock rate of the CPU is 200 MHz
MILLION INSTRUCTIONS-PER-SECOND (MIPS)
Instruction Percentage of No. of cycles per
Category occurrence instruction
ALU 35 1
Load & store 30 2
Branch 15 3
Others 20 5

Instruction count = 38+15+42+5 =100

Note:1 MHz = 1 000 000 hertz = 106 hertz

= 83.67