WOLAITA SODO UNIVESITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Department Of History & Heritage

Management Common Course: History Of Ethiopia & Horn

(Hist. 1012)
BY
PAULOS BALCHA

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 UNIT ONE
1. The Nature and Uses of History
A.
 History is derived from Greek word
means “inquiry”Nature of History
or “an account of Istoria,
inquiries.” one’s
 The term History is 1st used by ancient Greek
historians,
Herodotus ( “father of history).
Ordinary usage, history means all things happened in the
human past.
systematic studyhistory
Academically, of thecanpast. Historyas is
be defined an what
organized
actually
and happened in the past;
it is endless process between past, present & future.
The study of human society & its interaction with the
natural environment is major concern of history.

Time/period is important in History. It helps to

organize & divide past simply. Putting events is time is
known as Periodization. History is divided into
ancient, medieval & modern history.

Change & Continuities:- Historical developments or

events changed & remained unchanged.
All aspects of human life, social, cultural, economic,
&political in the past have been changing from time to
time; not practiced exactly the same way in the
lifetime of ancestors.

But, some things stay the same for long periods.

Example:-Languages; beliefs & religious practices;
agricultural/pastoral ways of life ; social
organization.
B. Uses of History
• History :- Helps Better Understand the Past,
know present & foresee future.
•Provides a Sense of Identity. a mirror in
which societysee themselves. It is like a badge.
* Provides Basic Background for other
disciplines:- Historical knowledge is
valuable for all extremely
*Teaches Critical Skills:- helps to get
research skills(sources, arguments, writing,
interpretation..)
* Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-
Mindedness
*Supplies Endless Source of Fascination:-sense
ofbeauty and excitement.
Why studying History is important?
It is essential to the individual and the society. Because:-
• we grasp how and why things change;
Understand what elements of a society persist
despite change.
•Aesthetic and humanistic goals
When we study History we should;
• Avoid personal bias and abuses. Professional historian is
different from propagandist. A professional historian
takes care to document his judgment and assertions.
 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
• Source is Evidence. Historians are not creative
writers likenovelists. Historians study must be based of
sources.
•• If there is no sources
Historical sources , no
arehistory to study. two types : -
classified
into Primary& Secondary
1 Primary sources
• They are original or first hand in their proximity to event
both in time & in space.
EXAMPLES :- manuscripts (handwritten materials),
diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative
files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and
audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils,
weapons, utensils, and buildings.
 2 Secondary sources
. second-hand published accounts about past event
• They provide an interpretation
of;- whathappened,
* why it happened, and how it
happened
•.SS often based on articles,
EXAMPLES: primary sources.
books,
biographies, textbooks, stories or
& historical published movies of
events.
Sources should be:- Carefully/thorough fully
scrutinized, analyzed, checked & cross checked ,
check their reliability , authenticity , Verified, check
objectivity, interpretation correctly with out
misinterpretation & abuses.
 Oral tradition (data):- transmission of
informationfrom one generation to
another generation by speaking , words ,
mouth
• source of historical writing.
• It is valuable to study and document the
history of
non-literate societies(ex.Africa).
• Oral data may lose its originality and
authenticity
due to distortion through time.
• It may be both primary and secondary sources:
*when it is eyewitness information, it becomes
primary source.
* When it is recount information, it belongs to
Secondary.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the
• Historiography :- It is history of historical writing.
Horn
Organized study & narration of past was introduced
by Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides.
• Sima Qian:- Han dynasty figure reminded for
Chinesetradition of thinking and writing.
• Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), & his colleagues
established history as an
independent discipline in Berlin.
Ranke is considered as the “father of
modernhistoriography.”
 Ethiopian Historiography(Sources)
1. Periplus of Erythrean (1st C):- Earliest
Seaknown reference on history of Ethiopia & Horn
in writtenby an anonymous (unknown) author.
2. Christian Topography (6thC) another
document composed by Cosmos Indicopleustes.
- It describe Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite
king’scampaigns on both sides of the sea.
i. Inscriptions: writings engraved on rocks, stones,
walls,monument shows past events.
ii.Manuscripts:- hand written records of past in forms of
books. The other earliest written materials from 7th C.
Document found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.
Thiswas followed by a manuscript discovered;-
Haiq Istifanos monastery in Wollo ( 13th C).
The value of manuscripts is essentially religious
iii. Hagiographers:- about life of saints/ martyrs of
Orthodox church & mosques’. Deals about both state
andreligion.
Example: Hagiography of TekleHaimanot &
Hagiography of Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of
Gattira(Muslim society)
iv. Chronicle: record of the king and life at court. It is
historical accounts of Kings without analysis. Ethiopia
had indigenous tradition of history writing. Chronicles to
court scribes or clergymen.
• The earliest & last of such surviving documents:-
GloriousVictories of Amde-Tsion & Chronicle of Abeto
Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.
• Chronicles known for their factual detail & strong
chronological framework(arranged by time). It is not
analyzed & not interpreted.
• Chronicles :- historical events mainly in religious
terms.
• Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to
coast also provide useful information on various
aspects of the region’s history:- Al-masudi & Ibn
Battuta about East African Coast.
• 16th and17th C, two documents composed
Yemeniwriters
by who were eye-witnesse.
• 1st : Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab al-
Din, who recorded the conflict b/n Christian kingdom
& Muslim principalities in the 16th C.
• Contribution of European missionaries & travelers
to dev’t of Ethiopian historiography is also
significant
• Missionaries (Catholics and Protestants).They
providevaluable information covering a considerable
period
1. Francisco Alvarez: Portuguese priest
composed
ThePrester John of Indies.
2. Travel documents had also important contribution to
the development of Ethiopian historiography.
ex. James Bruce’s :- Source of the Nile documents.
Hiob Ludolf:- 17th C,
• AGerman, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704):- was
the
founderof Ethiopian studies in Europe (17th C).
• Wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated as
A NewHistory of Ethiopia).
• He collected information from Abba (in Europe)
• Dillman published two books with better
objectivity.
20th C, Historical writings separated from chroniclers traditions.
Traditional Ethiopian writers emerged. Earliest group of
Ethiopian writers:- * Aleqa Taye Gebre Mariam:-

* Aleqa Asme Giorgis

* Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi.

* Negadras affework Gebre-Iyesus and

* Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn

Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social
justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history.
• Taye & Fisseha-Giorgis wrote history of Ethiopia.
• Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.
• Afework wrote 1st Amharic novel, Tobiya
Gebre-Hiwot : Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor
Menilek and Ethiopia) & Mengistna Yehizb Astedader
(Government & Public Administration) to his name.
• The most prolific writer of the early 20th C was
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie, Hiruy
publishedfour major works namely;
* Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema),
* Wazema(Eve)
* Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary)
and
* Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia)
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between
writersin pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians
who came after him
• Another work of importance in this period is
Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra
Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemenb (A History of Ethiopia in 16th
C). This book addresses the Oromo population
movement & wars between the Christian kingdom &
Muslim sultanates asits main subjects.
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel :-
wrote Zikre Neger. Zikre Neger is a comprehensive
account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems &
taxation
• Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote memoir of
imperial period or Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C
• The 1960s was a crucial decade and turning ponit in the
development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic
discipline.
• The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation
began with the opening of Department of History in 1963
at the Haile Selassie I University (HSIU)
• The production of BA theses began towards the end
of the decade.
• The Department launched its MA and PhD
programs in1979 and 1990 respectively
• Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) :- institutional home of
professional historiography of Ethiopia. IES was founded in 1963
• Richard Pankhurst is the first Director founding member of
IES.
• IES has been publishing Journal of Ethiopian Studies
for dissemination of historical research.
• Professionalization of history is post-colonial phenomenon.
Africans begun the works in this era with new
methodology.
Key Elements to Study History:-
 Critical Evaluation of Sources:- Primary and secondary
Objectivity writing without bias, for/against
Chronology
Interpretation careful analysis, checking the reliability ,
authenticity .
Avoiding interpretation / wrong/
 4. The Geographical Context
The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to
that part of Northeast Africa, which contains
the countries : -
* Djibouti * Eritrea,
* Ethiopia, and
* Somalia
• Diversity of the terrain led to regional variations
in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, &
settlement patterns of the horn
• Regions’ Geography has impact on the way
people live & organize themselves into
societies.
• Spatial location in relationship to other spaces &
• Ethiopia & Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden
and Indian Ocean.
• Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa
tothe Eastern Mediterranean,
• Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the
Near andMiddle East, India and the Far East
• Drainage system Another element of geography
factor that had profound impact on human history
• . Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage
systems:-
• These are : - Nile River, * Gibe/Omo–Gojeb,
* Genale/Jubba-Shebele, * Awash
River,and
• Drainage systems facilitated the movement of
peoples and goods across diverse environments,
• results in the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge,
cultural expressions, and beliefs.
• Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into
three majordistinct environmental zones
• Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip
of northeastern Eritrea
• include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel,
the DanakilDepression, the lower Awash valley
• highland massif starts from northern Eritrea & continues
all the way to southern Ethiopia.
• consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau
• Rift valley is the major divide between the western
and eastern parts of this zone
• The major physiographic features of the zone
are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and
extensive plateaus.
• Countries of Horn of Africa are, for the most
part, linguistically and ethnically linked
together.

THE END!
 UNIT
TWO
PEOPLES & CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA & HORN
Ethiopia & Horn region is referred as cradle of humankind and
where civilization, food producing, making tools & religious
practices started. It is also regions of diversity : diverse people,
cultures, languages , religion , customs and economies.
A. Biological Evolution
 Evolution is a process & gradual change in species over
time
which passed through genes.
Mammal primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, etc.). Others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors) through natural process after 170 million years.
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 2.1. Human Evolution
East African Rift Valley is regarded as a cradle of humanity.
Various archaeological evidences proof this argument. Examples
of fossils discovered in Ethiopia (name of the fossil, age, place &
age of discovery):-
i. Chororapithecus- 10 million., Anchar/West Hararghe, 2007.
ii. Ardipithicus ramidus- 4. 2 mill B.P., Aramis in Afar, 1994.
iii.Australopithecus afarensis, Selam- 3.3 million years B.P,
Dikika, Mille (Afar),2000.
iv.Australopithecus Afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh)- c. 3.18 mill
years B. P.), Hadar (Afar) in 1974 A. D. Lucy was bipedal.
v. Australopithecus garhi-2.5 million B.P., at Bouri, Middle
Awash B/N 1996 and 1999.
vi. Australopithecus anamensis :-discovered on Lake
Genus Homo- (Homo Habilis , Erectus , Sapiens)
- Result of the development of human brain. Emerged 2-2.5
million years B.P. Fossils found in Ethiopia & Horn
include:-
i. Homo Habilis :- skillful use of hands & oldest.
- dated 1.9 ml years B. P. Found in Lower Omo.
ii. Homo erectus- walking upright, dated 1.6 million years
B. P. They invented fire & started burials.
Fossils discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula &
Gadeb.
Originated in Africa; then spread out to the world.

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iii. Homo sapiens - knowledgeable human being
⚫ Archaic Homo Sapiens dated 400, 000 years B.P.).
⚫ Homo sapiens idaltu- 160, 000 years B.P
⚫ Homo Sapiens Sapiens- 100, 000 years B.P.
⚫ Major centers of human evolution in Ethiopia :- Lower Omo
and Middle Awash valleys.
B. Cultural Evolution
⚫Technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
⚫Ages:- Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
⚫ Stone tools were first technologies developed.

27
Stone tools grouped in to three:-
a. Mode I (Olduwan)-were crude and mono-facial.
 made and used by homo habilis.
 produced by the direct percussion. Dated 2.52 mill years
b. Mode II (Acheulean): were bifacial. Invented by homo
erectus
• Dated back to 1.7.million years B.P.
•Produced by indirect percussion, hammering.
c. Mode III (Sangoon): flexible and finest tools.
 produced by homo sapiens.
Sangoon (named after Sango Bay in Uganda).
Stone Age divided into : Paleolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic.
i. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)-3.4 million to 11, 000 B. P.
Humans developed language
28
sheltered in cave
⚫used stone, bone, wood, furs, & skin materials to prepare
food & clothing.
⚫Labor Division was begun. :- able-bodied males as hunters
of fauna ; children and females as gatherers of flora.
ii. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )-11, 000-10,000 B. P.
⚫Transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic.
⚫Oldest evidence of stone tool in world) was found at
Dikika
iii. Neolithic (New Stone Age) Neolithic Revolution.
Humans Shifted from Hunting-Gathering to
domestication plants & animals.
Domestication of plants and animals was major feature.
Sedentary way of life & mobile settlement was ended
Agriculture was started. People invented tools.
29
Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia:-
• Many flora (plants) and fauna(animals) were
domesticated. The 1st domesticated plants;- in Ethiopia.
Example:- Teff, dagussa , nug , enset … etc
• Manifestations: Many material remains ;- polished axes,
ceramics , grinding stones, remains of animals(cattle &
camel)
⚫Sites (places) of domestication of plants and animals in
Africa Horn include:- Emba-Fakeda in Tigray
Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea ; Gobedra near
Aksum
- Lalibela Cave on Lake Tana ; Laga Oda near Charchar
- Lake Basaqa near Matahara
30
 2.3 The Peopling of the Region
1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
⚫ Ethiopia & Horn is marked by ethnic & linguistic diversity
& unity. Languages of Ethiopia & Horn :- Afro-Asiatic
and Nilo-Saharan language super families.
Afro-Asiatic: divided into Cushitic, Semitic
and Omotic language families. Nilo-
Saharan :-Chari-Nile & Koman
1. Cushitic :- North, Central, Eastern & Southern Cushitic.
i. Northen Cushitic: Beja(Ertrean)
ii. Central Cushitic:- Agaw(Qimant, Hamtang, Bilen …)
iii.Eastern:- the most diversified. Oromo,Sidama, Somali,
Kambata, Ale, Arbore, Bayiso , Burji , Darashe,
Dasanache,
Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Saho
iv. Southern Cushitic:- Dhalo(Kenya) &31
2. Semitic: is divided as North & south Semitic.
• North Semetic:- Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken at Eritrea-
Sudanese border); Tigre (Eritrean ; Tigrigna
(highlandEritrea & Tigray).
South:- (Outer South Semitic & Transverse South
Semitic.)
i. Transverse:- Amharic Argoba, Harari, Silti, Wolane
& Zay
ii. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage & Mesmes
(endangered).
• 3. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa,
Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda,
Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse, Tsemay, etc.
• Why
out orLanguage status
in danger of & classification
extinction, did not remain
others thrived). 32
static ? b/c affected by factors like population movements,
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
shaped Settlement pattern.
 Cushites- :- largest linguistic group in the region.
They spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
 Semites-settled in the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern part.
 Omotic Peoples- majority south western Ethiopia along
Omo River except Shinasha & Anfillo.
 Nilotes- mainly found along Ethio-Sudanese border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
• Domestication of plants & animals gave humanity
interdependent modes of life: agriculture and
pastoralism.
33
• Other economic activities:- Fishing, handicraft, trade, etc.
• Highland area :- sedentary agriculture or mixed farming.
Practiced by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic people.
Eastern lowland:- mainly pastoralism
Western lowlands:- pastoralism,
shifting agriculture,
fishing, apiculture and hunting.
4. Religion and Religious
Processes
1. Indigenous Religion
• Indigenous religious :- beliefs and practices, native to
the region & practiced since ancient times.
• A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is: belief in 34
1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo :
 based on existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
• Waqa's power is manifested by spirits called Ayyana.
• Major spirits based on Waqeffanna:-
• Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit) - Atete (fertility
• Balas (victory spirit) spirit)
• Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
Ekera: a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost
Irrecha :- thanks giving festival ,besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
Qallu & Qallitti (female):maintained link b/n Ayyana & believers.
Galma:- Qallu ritual house
Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) : make pilgrimage to get
consecration of senior qallu (Abba Muda). Abba Muda had
turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white
at bottom.
35
2. Hadya: Supreme Being is known as Waa, whose eyes are
represented by elincho (sun) & agana (moon).
 Spirits :- Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard)
attracted prayers sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains.
 Itto and Albaja :- well-known spiritual leaders credited to
introduce Fandancho.
3. Kambata:
 Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God.
Magnancho :Religious officials
4. Gedeo:- Mageno(Supreme Being),
- Deraro:- thanks giving ceremony.
5. Konso religion worship Waqa/ Wakh
Waaq/Wakh36
6. Gojjam Agew
Diban:- Supreme Being / Sky
God.
7. Gurage:- Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
 Bozha (thunder deity) & Damwamwit (health goddess).
Gurage & Yem had a common deity known as Abba at
Enar (Henar).
8. Yem :- Ha’o (Sky God).
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties
9. Konta’s :- Docho (spirit-cult).
10. Wolayta :-
Tosa (Xoossaa)- God Tosa & Ayyana (spirit)
• Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
• Micho (goat spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit). 37
• Dufuwa (grave) was abode of Moytiliya (father’s spirit).
• Mita: Sacred place of annual worship of spirits
• sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha) offered there.
• Chaganna (prohibited days to work). Beka:- chose and
kept dark brown heifer . (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday
fate.
• Sharechuwa :- Religious practitioners
• Becha or Kra Eza Keta (ritual house).
11. Keficho’s :-
Yero:- Supreme Being. Eqo :- the spirit.
Alamo/ eke-Ayano : A person who hosts.
Father of all spirits dochi sat at Adiyo.
38
• Damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada &
wogidochi of Adio :- local spirits . Dugo clan led spiritual
services.
12. Boro-Shinasha
Iqa: super natural power. Rituals performed through
slaughtering animals.
Gure Shuka :- public prayer rituals.
13. Nuer : Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
• Rain, lightning thunder, rainbow, sun, moon and other
entities are manifestations or signs of God.
39
Indigenous religion elements:-
prescribe praying for the prevention of:
• drought, flooding, erosion,
• disease & starvation within
community
• Rituals are led by recognized elders, their pray
and bless are trusted to reach God.
• Practices & beliefs of indigenous religion are fused
with Christianity & Islam.
• Syncretism:- mixing of religions

40
 2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism in Ethiopia & Horn noticed in the 4th c AD, when
Bete-Israel refused to be converted to Christianity.
• Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism.
• Dan tribe migrated to Ethiopia at Exodus after death
of King Solomon .
• Menilek I, believed to be son of Solomon &
Makeda, Queen of Saba.
• 6th C, Jews led by Azonos & Phinhas, to Ethiopia.
• They intermarried with Agaws & known as Bete-
Israel.
• They lived in northern & northwestern Ethiopia
41
 2.4.3. Christianity
Before Christianity, northern part of Ethiopia were
Polytheists (worship many gods):-
• Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
• Arwe (serpent-python god),
• Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god)
Aedesius and Frementius :- Syrian brothers, converted
King Ezana (r. 320-360) into Christianity.
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
• Atnatewos of Alexandria (328-373) consecrated
Frementius as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC).
• Abune Baslios (1959): 1st Ethiopian Patriarch
anointed. 42
⚫Nine Saints who came from Mediterranean world
spread Christianity to the interior.
⚫Nine Saints translated the bible into Geez and founded
monasteries.
⚫Expansion continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270).
⚫It got fresh momentum during the Medieval Period
(1270-1527)
⚫Churches and monasteries served as repositories of
manuscripts and precious objects of art.
⚫Later, Jesuits (Society of Jesus or catholic missionaries)
tried to convert Monophysite(only one nature) EOC to
Dyophysite (2 nature- divine & human)Catholic. This
brought religious controversies in EOC.

43
⚫Both Catholic & Protestant missionaries preached
their respective treaties in Ethiopia and the Horn.
⚫Protestants, were systematic in preaching their
faith in the region. Protestants adopted old names
for Supreme Being and used them as equivalent to
God.
⚫They established schools open to all children
of chiefs & farmers.
2.3.4. Islam
Prophet Mohammed preached Islam in
Mecca since610 AD.
Prophet faced opposition from Quraysh rulers.
He sent some of his early followers to Aksum
44
• Armah Ella Seham (Ahmed al-Nejash), gave the
refugees asylum from 615-628 A.D.
 Islam spread to Horn of Africa by peaceful
ways:-trade.
 Muslims settled on the Red Sea coasts.
Islam spread among communities
of the interior, largelythrough the agency
of preachers and merchants.
Dahlak route played a role in introduction of Islam
intothe interior.
Zeila port on coast of Gulf of Aden
served as the mostimportant gateway.

45
• Sheikh Hussein (Muslim saint) of Bale spread Islam
into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia
& Horn.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th
cAD. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava &
Merca.
• Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.
• Mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have
been depositories of cultures, traditions & literature of
local Muslims.

The end of Chapter 2 !

46
UNIT THREE
Politics, Economy & Society In Ethiopia & Horn
To End Of 13th C
3.1 Emergence of States
What is state?
State:- autonomous political unit. State is the highestpolitical
organization.
-It have four key elements:- population,
defined territory, sovereignty & government.
-It was the outcome of sedentary agriculture & cultural process.
What were the factors for the emergence of state :-
-Agriculture,
-trade,
-Wars,
-Religion.
The beginning of agriculture & irrigation.
 Trade : facilitated the development of state
 Religion: played prominent role
Ethiopia & Horn is one of regions in Africa
where early state formation took place.
3.2 Ancient States in Ethiopia & Horn
1.Punt(1st historically known state in the Horn of Africa).
the earliest state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic
writing.
Punt had cultural & commercial relation with Egypt.
 Pharaoh Sahure- sent expedition to collect
myrrh, ebony
and electrum.
Pharaoh Asosi- took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from
Punt.
Queen Hatshepsut – sent ships under Nubian Captain
Nehasi via
Wadi-Tumilat. She took incense, cinnamon,
 Export items of Punt ( Punt to
 Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and
Egypt)
medicinal plants ..

Import items of Punt (from Egypt): axes,

swords, knives,clothes, bracelets, necklaces,
beads ,trinkets.
- Queen Hatshepsut presented the ritual importance
of Amun (god) & Khebis of the Netjeru--
divine
or ghosts land.
Where was Punt Located?:-
-Its exact location is not known/clear;
-but it is probably stretched from Swakim or
Massawa
to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape
 1. Da’amat
 Is located south of the present Aksum.
 It dated to the 5th C BC.
 Its rulers used politico- religious title known
as Mukarib.
 Its rulers Worshiped various god & goddesses.
Almouqah -principal god;
-Astarr - Venus god;
-Na’uran- light god;
-Shamsi- sun god;
-Sin - moon god;
 2.Small Archaeological centers
(Yeha, Hawulti, Melazo, Addi-Seglwmwni, Kaskase, Coloe,
Methara)
1.Yeha: l o c a t e NE of
d *The oldest centerAxum.
from others emerged in 1, 000
BC. Evidence for its existence are Remains of walls.
Eg. The Great Temple of Yeha
2.Hawulti Melazo: located southeast of Aksum, stone
tablets are inscribed in rectangular temple.
3. Addi-Seglemeni: southwest of Aksum.
4.other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya,
Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.
Aksumite State
formed around 200-100 B.C.
Its territorial limits embraced:-
- East: Red Sea coast
-Western: Nile Valley
-North- Eritrea and
-South: northern parts of
Shewa.
1. According to Periplus of
Erithrean Sea:
◦ Adulis was the major and
oldest port of Aksum.
◦ It mentioned ports of Aden
such as Zayla , Berbera, and
◦ Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts
like Moqadishu, Brava &
Merca.
Export Items Axum :- ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and
spices, gold,rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells
 2. Christian Topography
Written by Cosmas Indicopleustes
Describes trade of the Red Sea areas.
Mentions long distance trade between Aksum & a distant
region called Sasu rich in cattle. Practice in silent trade.
Aksumite kings like Gadarat, Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba,
Ezana, Ousanas II had extensive contacts with the outside
world notably with South Arabia.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i.
e.Roman Empire, Persia, China & Aksum) at the time as
recorded by, Mani.
Aksum was sufficient sources of timber for ship
building technology.
 King Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of
Aksumbeyond Himyar and Saba.But the local prince Dhu-
Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran.
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia until 570 A. D.
King Gabra Masqal:- son & successor of Kaleb who
built a church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
Decline of Aksumite Empire
a. Internal factor:-
Environmental degradation
Plague infestation
Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the
Aksumite state.
 b. External factor
Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702
Achievements of Axum
 Indigenous script and calendar
Art and architecture which greatly influenced the post Aksumite
periods. The Aksumite obelisks and other church buildings (such
as Debre Damo) are best examples.
Music (the hymns of St. Yared)
Urbanization;
Administrative and governance system
 Agricultural system including irrigation etc.
 Zagwe Dynasty(1150-1270
A.D) as the Aksumite center
Founded southwards to
shifted
Kubar,rural highland ofmarried
Merra Teklehaimanot the Agaw.
Masobe Worq, daughter of the
last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos,
Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
Territory:- extended to northern Shewa in
the south, the Lake Tana region and the northern part of
Gojjam in the west.
 Items of Trade
Export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices.
Imported items:- cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, drags
and newly minted coins.
 Pecular Achievements of Zagwe period :-
-It was a golden age in Ethiopia's art, architecture,
paintings & translation works from Arabic into Ge'ez,
well developed as an extension of the Aksumite
civilization.
 The excavation of numbers of churches from bed rock is its
best achievement. The rock-hewn churches classified in
to three types:
1.Cave: with some decoration inside, similar with
natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2.Semi-hewn: are with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside. They are not totally separated from the
surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to the
rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete
Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and
Bete Abba Libanos.
3.Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and
exterior parts. They are completely separated (carved out)
from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete
Giyorgis,Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and
Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in
the shape of the Cross.
Why King Lalibela built these churches?
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem to
avoiddifficulties of Ethiopian Christians encountered
in their journey to the Holy Lands.
 The Downfall of Zagwe Dynasty
a. Problems of royal succession
b.Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient
rulers of Aksum.
Based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba,
Solomonic rulers claimed the Zagwe rulers as
“illegitimate”.
Yekuno-Amlak, decent from the last Dilna’od,
defeated thelast king of Zagwe (Yetbarek) at a battle
in Gaynt & proclaimed the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty.
3. East, Central, Southern, and Western States.
A. Bizamo:- on southern bend of Abay River. Founded in
18th C & had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot:
-oldest state. Its territories :- in to south of Abay and
north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and
east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot 13th C
C. Enarya:
-was a kingdom in the Gibe region in SW Ethiopia.
-Royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario
Busaso).
 Organs of the Monarchy
-King (Hinnare- Tato).
-Mikretcho (council)
-Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson)
-Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
-The kings had residences inYadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat:
-Lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery.
• Populations: Semitic speaking population related to Harari
and the Gurage.
• Paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
• Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names. Rulers bearing
the title of Awalamo.
 4. Muslim Sultanates
A. Shewa:
-the oldest sultanate.
-Founded by Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, in 896 A.
D , Makhzumite dynasty.
B. Fatagar(11th C) :- around Minjar, Shenkora &
Ada’a.
C. Dawaro:-
-located between upper waters of Awash and
-Valuable
Wabi- information on Dawaro by
Shebelle. Egyptian
an courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari.
-Dawaro had acurrency called hakuna
D. Bali: It separated from Dawaro by Wabi-Shebelle
River & extended southwards to Gannale Dirre
River.
⚫Trade was mainly barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth
E. It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
Ifat:- established by Umar Walasma, of Hashamite clan
• The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
• Inhabitants earned from wheat, sorghum, chat, millet and
teff, and animal husbandry.
Others States: Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),
Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise,
Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
(West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim
 3.3 .External Contacts
A.Egypt - introduction of Christianity to Aksum established
anew pattern of relation between the region.
B. Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
C. South Arabian Kingdoms
The Legend of Prester John
The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought
over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter
The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known
to Europe for over a century.
Rich & powerful Christian ruler in middle of the 12th century
The Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land
of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea
and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
 3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
The main base of ancient states' economy in highland areas
was ploughagriculture.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
Communal right to land is a group right.
Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the
familiesand clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area over
long periods.
• It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’
produce. The tribute collected by bale-gults,
Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-
Gult
B. Handicrafts :
- Metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving,
jewelry, basketry. The artisans were mostly
marginalized.
C. Trade: Internal and international trade.
Generally, the above discussed states have numerous socio-
cultural achievements
A. Architecture
 Monuments and buildings of religious and secular spaces
 There were 58 steales in & around Aksum.
 The longest measures 33m (the first in the world)
& represents 14 storiedbuilding.
 It also bears pre-Christian symbols, disc and a crescent (half
moon) at the top.
 second longest obelisk measures 24 m height that
was successfully erected represents 9 -storied building.
3rd longest stele measures 21 meters & represents a nine-
storied building.
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian
world.
B. Writing System
Sabean language had an alphabet with
paleographical writing from left to right and right to
left alternatively.
The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia
date to the ninth century BC.
By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an
abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right
with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern
vocalized alphabet.
 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system
immense contribution to the development has
literature,art and the writing of history. of
C. Calendar
1. Oromo calendar:- Based on astronomical observations of moon
in conjunction with 7 or 8 particular stars or group of stars
called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) & Bakkalcha (morning
star).
-There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in
12 months.
-Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have
to
develop Oromocalendar
2. The Sidama calendar:- Rotates following movements of stars
with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into
28days while the thirteenth month has 29days.
 -The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko,
Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each
month has 7 weeks. Fiche Chambalala,
New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
3. Ethiopic solar calendar :- Has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6
(is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, comprise
a 13th month.
4. The Muslim (Islamic) calendar
A lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354
or 355 days.
It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed
and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
5.Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,
Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
D. Numerals
Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the
beginning of fourth century AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew,
Arabic and Greek numerals
 UNIT FOUR
Politics, Economy & Society Late 13th to 16th
C
4.1. ‘Restoration’ of the ‘Solomonic’
Dynasty
King Yikuno-Amlak (r.1270-85) took power.
•Ethiopian monarchsclaimed that they were
descendants of the last king of Aksum.
•They regarded Zagwe rulers as
usurpers or “illegitimate” power
holders.
•Such claim has been elaborated in Kibre Negest
(“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with
Judeo-Christian tradition. There no
• Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling
class descended from the line of Menilek I,
son of the Queen of Sheba and King
Solomon of Israel.
• Monarchs from King Yikuno-Amlak to
Emperor Haile- Silassie I claimed descent
from Menilek I.
⚫But, claim has no proper historical
evidence; the claim is legendary. Thus,
name ‘Restoration’ & ‘Solomonic’ are
often put in quotation mark.
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion
and Religious Processes
• Succession Problem & Establishment ofa ‘Royal
Prison’ of Amba Gishen.
⚫Such practice continued until Amba-Gishen was
destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi‘s
⚫After Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused
by constant power struggles of his sons & grandsons for
succession.
⚫ Power struggle intensified at the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s
five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
⚫ The succession problem was resolved in 1300.
• Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) established a 'royal prison' at
Amba-Gishen, a massif located in Wollo :- All male members of
the royalty were detained there and guarded by the loyal soldiers.
• When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send
 army to the prison to escort the designated successor and
put him on the throne.
Consolidation & Territorial Expansion of
Christian
Kingdom
-Territorial Expansion was one of unique features
of ‘Solomonic’ state.
-1270 -1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent
capital. They used mobile courts b/c to control
rebellions and solve problems of firewood.
Center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval
Amhara(South Wollo) around Lake Hayq.
• However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of
Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and Yerer, Anko ber
Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and
• Territorial expansion was started by Yikuno-Amlak and
refashioned(adjusted) by King Amde-Tsiyon (r. 1314-
1344).
• Amde-Tsion :- expansionist king, widen
and rapid territorial expansion.
-He campaigned into:-
*Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7;
*Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around
1323/4;
*Bete-Israel (b/n Dambiya &
Tekeze River)
-He gave Enderta (NE Tigray) to his
wife Bilen-Saba.
• Amde-Tsion faced stiff resistance from Ifat &
Shewa,
• Amde-Tsion campaigned as far as Red Sea Coast.
⚫he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-
Bahir, later on changed to Bahire-Negash (Lord of
the Sea).
⚫Amde-Tsion controlled almost all the trade
routes and sources.
⚫Sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom.
⚫Gurage speaking areas, Wolayta and Gamo were
brought under the influence.
Evangelization, Religious Movements and Reforms
I. Evangelization got new momentum.
⚫Early Christians played role in the spread of
Christianity
⚫Iyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for
Christians.
⚫He evangelized the newly incorporated areas.
⚫Christianity spread to parts of Shewa such as Kil'at,
Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and
Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
⚫Abune Tekle-Haymanot played a key role in reviving
Christianity in Shewa & southern Ethiopia, Damot.
⚫ He baptized & converted Motalami to Christianity.
 II. Religious Movements:
 It was seen as a threat to imperial unity.
Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian
Orthodox Church in the mid-thirteenth century.
A. The Ewostatewos Movement : founder, Abba
Ewostatewos. Ewostatewos established his own monastic
community in Sara'e (in Eritrea).
◦ taught the strict observance of the Sabbath.
◦ spread to areas like Enfranz,Tigray, & Hamessen.
⚫The King and the Abun opposed the movement.
⚫Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe-Birhan , led anti-Ewostatewos
group.
⚫It was supported by the abun and the monarch.
⚫King feared that dispute in church could divide
⚫Therefore, he imprisoned some of the Ewostatians.
⚫The clergy also expelled Ewostatians from church services.

B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ Estifanosites(15th – 16th C)

 Estifanosites were a movement with in Ethiopian
Monastecism
founder and spiritual leader was Abba Estifanos.
emphasized rigid monastic organization, which
emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence,
equality.
rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual
matters.
refused to participate in court judiciary
procedures.
Zara-Yacob (r.1434-68) took very harsh
measures against Estifanosites for their
opposition of veneration of St. Mary.
Estifanosites formally reconciled with the
main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church in the16th century.
III. Emperor Zara-Yaqob introduced Religious Reform.
⚫He took several measures to stabilize Orthodox Church.
⚫He settled the conflict among clergy.
⚫made peace with the House of Ewostatewos
⚫urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
• He ordered to observe fasting on Wednesdays and
Fridays.
• King encouraged the establishment of a library
• There was revival of religious literature.
• He wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan,
Metsafe- Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-
te'aqebo Mister.
• Te’amre-Maryam were translated from Arabic to
Geez.
 4.3. Political, Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim
Sultanates
Expansion of Islam and the Rise of Muslim Sultanates
⚫Islam spread into the central and southwestern
parts through Muslim merchants and
preachers.
⚫Trade led to the expansion of Islam; formation of different
towns and trade centers.
The old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and
Merca were used as ports for their hinterland.
For the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as
an outlet. The market towns that served the Zeila
route include:
 Weez-Gebeya in Shewa on the Fatagar-
Dawaro-Harar Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot
 Suq-Amaja and the very famous market center
Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. Gandabalo
was largely inhabited by Muslim and
Christian merchants serving the kings and
sultans as agents.
Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu linked
medieval Amhara with Awsa
Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and
Mandalay in southern Tigray.
The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-
Negash
Asmara was the two important entrepots of
caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
Muslim states had control over trade routes of
Zeila but contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom
Expansion of Islam led to formation of Islamic states often
led by sultans, thus sultanates.
⚫Most known Sultanates were Ifat & Adal.
⚫Ifat was established by Walasma family
• moved Harar in 1367.
• Ifat’s first center at Dakar.
• In 1520 its name changed to Harar.
• began another phase of military campaigns against the
frontiers of the Christian Kingdom
• Because of the Oromo pressure, in 1566/7 it was
forced to change its capital to Awsa, the present Afar
region.
4.4. Rivalry of Christian Kingdom & Muslim Sultanates
*Zeila was the main outlet to the sea & source of income
The main Cause for their Rivalary:
-The ambition to control Zeila trade route and commodities
that passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the
“Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
⚫The immediate cause of conflict was that the Sultan of
Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants of Christian kgdm.
⚫Amde-Tsion defeated Haqaddin I replaced him
by his
brother Sabradin.
-Both Ifat & Fatagar came under Sabradin.
•The Hadiya and Dawaro made an alliance with
Sabradin.
•Sabradi was defeated. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and
Dawaro were incorporated.
•Amde-Tsion made them to pay annual tributes.
•After Ifat, Other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Harar,
Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
Conflicts b/n Adal and Christian Kingdom
Neway-Maryam (1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion vs
Haqadin II in 1376.
the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II vs king
Dawit
I. Sa’d ad-Din II defeated.
Sa’d ad-Din II killed by King Yishaq
Muslim sultanates power declined in power.
15th C, Emperor Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed
Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.
 After Mohammed, Adal was still strong .
Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal.
 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak
In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died against Lebne-Dengel's
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi,(Ahmed Gragn or
the "left-handed" took over the leadership.
There were socio-economic & cultural interactions
between
Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities.
• Trade was the channel of social integration.
•it had long been source of friendship,
interaction, interdependence, & conflict among the states
of the region.
•Long distance trade & local markets served as core areas of
social ties. The difference in ecology of the Muslim
sultanates
& Christian Kingdom created economic
interdependence, which in due course strengthened socio-
economic bondage.
•Merchants of two regions often moved from the highlands to
•It was through such caravan merchants that the social
links were strengthened and religions spread.
•These interactions and interdependence in
economic,
social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for
modern Ethiopia.
⚫The period also witnessed the flourishing of Geez
literature eg. Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and philosophies
epitomized by Zara-Ya'iqob
⚫On the Muslim side, literature had developed including
the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn
Khaldun and others.
 4.5. External Relations
i. Relations with Egypt
Yekuno-Amlak sent envoys to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars
requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church.
-Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors
of religious minorities in their respective
domain.
-Egypt also wanted to ensure the secure flow of
the Nile (the Abay River) that originated from
Ethiopia.
In 14th C, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the
Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo.
Amde-Tsion too demanded the restoration of the churches
and warned that the failure to do so would result in
the diversion of the Nile waters.
Patriarch Marqos of Coptic Egyptian Church (1348-
63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing
Sayfa-Arad mobilized a huge army against
Egypt
Patriarch Matewos delegated by the
Sultan, made harmonious relations
between King Dawit and Egypt. The
Sultan sent the "True Cross" and in
return, Dawit given religious paintings to
the Sultan.
Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to
Sultan Barsbay requesting the
protection of Christians in Egypt.
⚫Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq
(1438-53) with a strongly worded letter.
⚫Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with
complimentary gifts to the King but rejected
the reconstruction of the church.
 Relations with Christian Europe
Christian Kgdm maintained relations with Christian
Europe.
Contacts influenced by the legend of “Prester
John”. Examples:
Ethiopian delegation attended Gian Galeazzo
Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395.
Message from Amde-Tsion was presented to King
Phillip of France in 1332.
Three Ethiopians attended the Council of
Constance.
The earliest known message to Ethiopia
from a European monarch is the letter of
King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and
addressed to “Prester John”, the purported king of
the Christian Kingdom.
⚫The identification of the King with “Prester
John” was firmly established in the 14th C.
They wanted to liberate Jerusalem with the help
of King. Hence, during the reign of King Dawit,
the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in
which they asked for support.
⚫King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen.
⚫Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation
from Yishaq in the city
of Valentia, in 1427.
⚫Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more
artisans and military experts.
⚫The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting
craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of
Yishaq.
•In 1450 King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates(mission)
led by a Silican Pietro Rombulo & Fikre-
Mariam and others to Alphonso to get political,
military, and technical assistance.
• Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited
Ethiopia.
•Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived
at court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493. The
rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and
Muslim Sultanates in 15th C strengthened the
relation between the Christian Kingdom and
Christian Europe also strengthened.
• Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married
to King Zara Yaeqob) played an
important role in the strengthening of these
relations. She consolidated relations with Portugal
against Turkey which showed a clear interest to support
Portugal sent a person to act as an
ambassador to Christian Ethiopia.
1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and
regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an Armenian
called Mathew to Portugal.
Portuguese Embassy led
by Rodrigo diLima, Duwarto
Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached
Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six
years.
The objective :- was to establish a naval
port against Turkish power in Red Sea
area though it was not successful.

THE END OF UNIT 4

 UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL
PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY 16th -END
OF 18th C
Major developments:-
 Expansion of trade;
 Conflicts between Christian Kingdom & Muslim
Sultanates;
 Foreign intervention;
 Population movements;
 Religious expansions;
 Interaction and integration of peoples across
ethnic and religious diversities.
 5.1. Conflict between Christian Kingdom &
Sultanate of Adal
What was the cause between Christian-Adal
conflict?
⚫The revival of long-distance trade & struggle to control
trade routes caused competition b/n Christian Kingdom &
Muslim principalities.
⚫Maladministration & exploitation of periphery made
military mobilization possible, while religion provided
ideological justification for the wars.
⚫Military mobilization begun in 1520s, as Imam Ahmed
Ibrahim al-Ghazi took leadership over Sultanate of Adal.
⚫With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and
Afar of eastern Ethiopia, raiding and counter-raiding at
water holes intensified.
• Ahmed Gragn convinced Muslim communities not to
fight among themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing material
needs.
• Ahmed was able to gain acceptance as Imam and
consolidated his army to confront the Christian Kingdom.
Lebne-Dengel (1508-1540) :- Christian state retained its
economic & political interest and advanced into Muslim
territories scoring significant victories.
• But, Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the
territories of Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya
and Kambata, putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.
• The Imam’s army saw a better mobility and flexible
tactics with a unified command.
 Battle of Shimbrakure (1529)
In 1529, Christian army was defeated at the battle of
Shimbra Kure, near present day Mojo.
• Then, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the
territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa,
Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb
Melash.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
• Bati Del Wanbara, the Imam’s wife, was one of the most
significant figures in the war.
⚫As a result of military set back, finally Lebne
Dengel was forced to retreat, died in 1540 as a
fugitive .
 Gelawdewos

Was the son of Lebne Dengil, continued to face

the wars with more intensity.
•he, obtained about 400 Portuguese soldiers
in 1541, led by Christopher da Gama, the
youngest son of Vasco da Gama (a famous sailor).
•But in 1542 the Christian army was
defeatedat Ofla, southern Tigray by Adal
forces.
•Seblewongel (Libne Dengli’s wife) was a
significant figure in the course of the wars.
-She advised Gelawdewos how to
prepare & march for the final battle.
 Battle of Woyna Dega(1543)
• A fierce and final battle was fought on 1543 at Woyna-Dega,
near lake Tana, where the Imam was killed.
• After the battle, Gelawdewos restored many of the pre-1520s
territories.
⚫But, control over Muslim dominated areas was not an easy.
⚫Challenges to Christian state came from Sultanate of Adal,
the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, & Oromo advance
into the center.
⚫The Sultanate of Adal, under the leadership of Emir Nur
Mujahid was ready to wage war against the Christian state.
⚫In 1559, his force confronted and killed Gelawdewos.
 Minas
-was the successor of Gelawdewos
-he defeated the Turks' force and
reclaimed territories in the
coast including Dabarwa.
Sartsa-Dengle:-
-defended his territory from
the Turks while fighting with the
Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya
& Oromo.
-The war took global dimension in
involvement of the Turkish and the
Portuguese
 Effects of the conflict

loss of military and civilian life;

destruction of material property;
Both Sultanate of Adal and the Christian
Kingdom were weakened, paving the way
for an easy infiltration and success of the
Oromo population movement.
Dispersion of people, Cultural
intermingling and integration across
various linguistic and religious groups.
 5.2. Foreign Intervention & Religious Controversies

• Portugal and Ottoman Turks competed for supremacy

over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
• Ottomans:- to counter the Portuguese encroachment into
the East, while
• Portugal looked toward the Christian Kingdom as an ally,
reviving the old "semi-spiritual quest" for
Prester John. They were the Roman
Catholics.
• Christian Kingdom sought alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to
-secure its internal and external threats.
-sufficient modern weapons & training
 Jesuits in Ethiopia
 Jesuit missionaries came to Ethiopia in 1557.
 Members of the mission were Joao Bermudez, Andreas de
Oviedo(bishop), Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
 They promoted Catholicism with some elements of teaching that
contradicted teaching of Orthodox Church.
 Gelawdewos (emperor) engaged in doctrinal debates with the
missionaries & defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in
a document the Confession of Faith.
 Missionaries got relative success with Susenyos, because he was
challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute.
⚫ To secure military & technical assistance Susenyos (emperor)
sought for an alliance, which he got through the diplomatic
advisory of Pedro Paez.
1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism & declared Catholicism as
state religion in 1622.
 This caused anti Catholic voices and led to revolts
among the ecclesiastics and the nobility.
In 1632, a large number of peasants lost their lives .
Fasiledas (1632-1667)
 He seized power after his father Suseniyos abdicated
from throne;
 he restored the position of Orthodox Church as the
state religion,
 expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts.
 he introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated
country from all Europeans for a century and a half.
 He adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with
Islamic world & formed an alliance with neighboring
Muslim states.
 Fasiledas concluded an agreement with the Ottoman
Pashas at Suakin and Massawa in 1647.
 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained
effective until the beginning of 19th C, with exception
of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques
Poncet(1700) & Scottish traveler James Bruce (1769).
 Jesuit intervention initiated doctrinal divisions &
controversy within the EOC that was divided into
disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint.
-Two Birth
-Three Birth
-Qibat
 5.3. Population Movements
• Population movement shaped the history of Ethiopia
& Horn.
What were reasons for population movement?
 People moves/moved from place to
place due to pull & push factors, which
can be natural and social.
 Military conflicts,
 drought and demographic pressure,
 search for resources and better living environment.
 Population movements led to
-intermingling & integration of peoples across
ethnic & religious lines.
5.3.1. Population Movements Argoba, Afar, & Somali
• Environmental pressure, example the military conflict
b/n Christian Kingdom & Sultanate of Adal were
responsible for the population movement of the Argoba,
Afar and Somali.
-the territories of Argoba, Afar
and Somali lay in the region where
trade routes passed.
-they were affected by the consequences of the
military conflict.
• The people moved back and forth in response to
the ongoing military conflicts, from the late 13th to 16th
C.
 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
o Institution through which the Oromo socially
organized, administered their affairs, defended their
territories, maintained law and order, and managed their
economies.
o Gada system organized politics, economy, social,
cultural, and religious affairs.
 The account by Abba Bahrey in 1593 indicates that
during the early 16th C, the system fully functioned.
 In Gada system, 8 years represented one Gadaa period,
 5 gadaa periods (5x8=40 years) represented one
generation and nine generations represented an era.
 Gada system organized Oromo society into age-grades
& generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities.
 It constituted elements of democracy such as
periodic succession and power sharing.
 It served as a mechanism of
socialization, education, maintenance of peace and order, and
social cohesion.
 The Gadaa system functioned by cyclical
power transfer from one Gadaa class to next every 8 years.
⚫ Abba Muda:- senior Qallu played indispensable
roles in power transfer & legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
⚫ Sinqe institution:- in which Women maintained theirrights
to form sister hood and solidarity.
⚫ Women involved in occasions like power
transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving &
Table I: Age-grades and their
roles
Gada grade Age Roles
Dabale Birth-8 years

Game 9-16 Socialization

Folle 17-24 Military training, agriculture

Qondala 25-32 Military service

Raba-Dori 33-40 Candidate for political power

Luba 41-48 Leaders of gada government

Yuba 49-80 Senior advisors, educators and

ritual leaders
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
What were the factors of Oromo population movement?
 Natural factors:- demographic pressure & need for
land to accommodate growing human &
livestock population.
Christian Kingdom & Muslim Sultanates conflict caused
pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited
for other areas. Oromo were organized under Borana and
Barentu confederacies.
⚫Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a
corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya.
⚫When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and
Hawassa, they took westward and penetrated across the
Bilatte River to the southwest.
⚫1522 to 1618, Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
Accordingly:
 Melba:- st Gadaa (1522-1530) fought &
1
Christian
defeated regiment Batra Amora and occupied Bali;
 During Mudena Gada(1530-38) reached the edge of
Awash River.
 During Kilole Gada(1538-46) controlled Dawaro,
 During Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 During Michille Gada(1554-62) scored victory over
Hamalmal's force at Dago, & Jan Amora forces as well as
Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahid at Mount Hazalo.
 During Harmufa Gada, fought Minas (r.1559-63) at
Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint
etc.
In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaz
Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga,
but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’
force.
 Birmaji controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to
Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
 During Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo,
Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 During Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), &
During Mudena (1610-'18) expanded to West and
Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like
the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia.
⚫Organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played
crucial role in the success of the Oromo population
movement.
⚫Their movement into various regions, different Oromo
branches established Gadaa centers.
Accordingly:
Oda Nabee of Tulama
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi)
Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi
Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
o There were also other many centers such as
in Jimma, Guji, Wollo, etc.
but, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office
of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda
Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty.
 5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic
and Religious Diversities
⚫People’s interaction of medieval period was
by:- political, social, and economic processes
⚫Population movement of the period
extensive
covered geographical areas in the region.
⚫Itinvolved diverse ethnic groups, cultures,
and religions from south to north and from east to
west.
⚫Territorial and religious expansion by the Christian
kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north
to the south.
⚫The wars of Imam Ahmed and the
population
movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali
caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts
of Ethiopia.
 The Oromo population movement integrated non-
Oromo through two adoption mechanisms:
Guddifacha and Moggasa.
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a
foster(adoptive) parent.
 Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath
of allegiance with all the rights and
obligations that such membership entailed.
 The interactions also resulted in an exchange of
socio-cultural values and institutions.
 A number of other peoples adopted Gadaa system
and Oromo language.
 The Oromo also adopted cultures and traditions of
the people with whom they came into contact.
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and
Western Regions
1. Peoples and States in the East
 Somali:-The Somali people inhabited in a vast
of the
territory
Horn of Africa.
- society were governed by a council known as shir.
- The council governed a wide- ranging
affairs, resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime.
⚫ Guurti (a council of elders)
-was the highest political council
mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.
-The decision making process allows all-
adult male to have equal access and participation.
 Afar
 lived in Ethiopia, northern Djibouti,
southern part of Eritrea. and
northeastern
they occupied lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb (16th C).
• Makabanto :- Afar indigenous governance system, which has
some elements of democracy.
• After the collapse of the Sultanate of Adal, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah,
Rahaito and Gobad.
• Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the
middle Awash. It was reestablished in 1734, and was ruled by
Mudaito Dynasty.
• Awsa’s economy was mainly depended on Bati-Ginda’e trade
route.
 Argoba፡-
⚫one of the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam
very early from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
⚫Argoba, lay in the region where trade routes passed
& affected by the consequences of the military conflict
The Emirate of Harar
⚫Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in Ethiopia &
Horn. In 16th C, it served as the political center of Adal,
replacing Dakar, until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa
due to the pressure from the Oromo.
⚫At Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where
the sultanate of the Harari developed.
⚫Emir Ali ibn Da’ud:- established a dynasty which ruled
for nearly two centuries and a half.
⚫Majilis (the Emir’s council) engaged in
supervising Waqf (Mosque land) & offering other
assistance to the Emir.
⚫The emirate grew in importance to be a
steady center of Islamic culture and power.
⚫Its economic power grew as it controlled trade
routes from the Gulf of Aden ports to Zeila and
Berbera.
⚫ Its authority was established over the
surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade,
inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic
teachings.
⚫Egyptians were attracted by the prominence of the
Emirate which they sent an expeditionary force in 1875
and controlled it for nearly a decade.
⚫It was later restored, and ruled by Emir Abdulahi, as the
last emir of the Sultanate for two years, until it was
incorporated into Menelik’s Empire in 1887.
 2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central
The Kingdom of Shewa
⚫formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos
⚫His successors expanded the domain of the Kingdom
⚫The dynasty became strong under Negus
Sahle- Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of
Menilek II.
⚫He signed a “treaty of friendship and
commerce” with the British in 1841.
Economy:-
agriculture supplemented by trade and craft.
⚫Aleyu Amba (near Ankober) was an important
trade center.
Gurage
⚫area is divided into: Northern & Western.
⚫Northern Gurage :
⚫Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage;
⚫Western Gurage :-Sebat Bet Gurage, which include:
Chaha, Muher, Ezha, and Gumer (Inamor, Enner,
Endegegn and Gyeto). Additional groups included
Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.
⚫Gurage had an indigenous system of governance
developed over the centuries. It is known as the Yajoka
Qicha (Sebat Bet) and Gordanna Sera(Kistane).
⚫The leadership system was decentralized.
⚫ Enset is the staple food of the people.
Kambata
⚫Kambata means, “this is the place” where we live, had its
homeland around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of
Kambata territory.
⚫four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the
contemporary state.
⚫The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro
trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.
⚫Ethno-genesis of Kambata also benefitted from
Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the region.
⚫Kambata had an indigenous administrative
institution called the Hambericho Council.
⚫king at the top, the council ruled the region, until when it
was incorporated into Ethiopian Empire state.
 Hadiya (13th C)
• The descendants of Hadiya can be traced from four
different linguistic clusters: Oromo, Sidama, Kabena &
Alaba; and
• Hadiya , its sub-groups: the Mareko, Lemu, Soro,
Shashogo and Badowacho.
• Amde-Tsion 1332, controlled the region after defeating its
ruler, Amano.
• In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against
Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by
his uncle Bamo.
• To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a
political marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni,
from Hadiya, who became an important historical
figure, married Zara Yaqob.
• Garad Aze, another Hadya leader, refused to pay
tribute to Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but was
suppressed in 1568/9.
• Until its incorporation into Ethiopian Empire in the
late nineteenth century, the relations between Hadiya
and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted due to:
The wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Adal Sultanate; and the Oromo population
movement,
 3.Peoples and States in the South
Sidama
⚫living in the southern parts of Ethiopia, occupying
lowlands in the Great East Africa Rift Valley, and in
the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and
Arroressa districts.
⚫The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance
led by the Mote (king). Mote exercised political and
administrative authority in consultation with the council
of elders called Songo.
⚫Woma:-The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society.
Woma, selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily
perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution.
• Luwa:- Genertion Sets of Sidama society
• The system had five grades each lasting for 8 years.
• 5 Grades: Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and
Mogissa.
• Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training
and war songs known as gerarsha under the leadership of
the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa.
• Sera was an important institution of the people, regarded as
the social constitution governing social life based on the
Sidama’s moral code, Halale (the ultimate truth) to judge
the right and wrong.
 Gedeo
⚫Seven major Gedeo clans descended from the
seven sons of Daraso, the older brother of Gujo.
⚫Clans were grouped into two houses: Shole batte
(senior house) and Sase batte (junior house).
⚫The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, an
indigenous governance system that worked with
age classes and ranking.
⚫Sasserogo was a federation of three territories:
Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta, sharing one Abba
Gadaa who leaves office every eight years.
⚫It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging
from the top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were
assumed.
 Konso
• Name Konso is used to refer to one of the ancient people
inhabit around Sagan and Woyito
• Konso means is a “heavily forested hill/ area.”
• Agriculture major economic activity of the people.
• Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas) which were
further divided into wards called Kanta.
Dawuro:
- Dawuro land had been inhabited by
three major clans namely Malla, Dogalla, and Amara.
⚫In the 18th C, Kawuka dynasty (rulers came from
Kawka clan, one of the clans in Dauro) had created a
big state from a great number of petty chieftainships on
the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers.
⚫Kati (king) Irashu and Kati Halala were famous.
⚫At the time, Dawuro incorporated Konta.
⚫Kati Halala is known for his stone fortifications, which
he oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
 Wolayta
⚫Badia, Badiagadala & Arujia :- communities
before emergence of Wolayta as a political unit.
⚫Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre :- two
successive dynasties ruled WolaytaFrom, 13th to the
late 19th C
⚫Motalami :- founder of kindom & Wolayta-Malla.
⚫At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the
Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors.
• In Wolayta, land was nominally owned by the king There
were also communal lands allocated for grazing and social
gatherings to which all members of the society except
artisans had equal access.
• The king rewarded people with land on grounds of gallant
deeds in battle and other important contributions to the
state.
Gamo:-
• The Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya
to the Gughe Mountain.
⚫Woga:- indigenous laws called Woga, a belief that
everything was connected and bound
⚫Gamo lived in scattered settlements and organized in
different communities called dere.
⚫The people had developed their own indigenous
knowledge and technologies in manufacturing different
types of tool such as weapons, musical and funeral
instruments.
 4. Peoples and States in the Southwest
Kafa (14th C)
⚫Tato-(royal title of kafa rulers) with his major
political center at Bonga.
⚫ Mikrecho :- a council of seven advisors.
Economy:- agriculture and trade. Trade items, such as
musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet
were major exported items.
⚫Kafa maintained relative independence until 1897.
Yem
• Yem is located along the eastern banks of the Gibe River
• In the fourteenth century a dynasty called Mowa,
claiming its origin from the north, begun to rule the region
with its center at Angari.
• Amano (king) acted as a chief priest with divinity.
• Astessor:- a state council of 12 members.
• Erasho :- provincial governors appointed by the king.
Economy :- agriculture, trade and crafts.
Yem was incorporated into Ethiopia state,
empire Menilek II under
Southern Omo
⚫South Omo people:- Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi,
Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male…
⚫Major economic activities:- sedentary
agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts.
⚫They organized into an independent clan based chiefdoms.
⚫ The clan chiefs were entitled with both political and
ritual authorities over the people of their respective domain.
 5. Peoples and States in the
West Berta and Gumuz (16th
C)
• inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional
State.
• The people speak language which belongs to the Nilo-
Saharan family.
• Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and other
Nilotes because of their trade and social contacts with the
northern Sudan.
Anywa
⚫inhabited areas along the western borderlands of
the present-day Gambella region.
⚫The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo-
⚫They had indigenous administrative system, village lived
under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles,
Nyiye,
⚫ The administration of the territory was not centralized.
⚫Economy :- small-scale cultivation, fishing and hunting.
Nuer
• lived in areas that extended across the savannas and
marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions
of the Sudan.
• they had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella
along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan.
• Economy:- cattle breeding supplemented by crop production.
• people had developed a complex spiritual culture
their
aroundcattle, which were used as bride wealth.
Majang
• formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement
• Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in
forested areas of western Ethiopia.
• By mid twentieth century, their settlement extended to areas
near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
• Economic base of the people is practicing shifting cultivation
and animal husbandry, beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
 Kunama
• also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants of
western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in
today’s northwestern and western Tigray.
• In the 9th C, al-Ya‛qubi, the Arab trader, mentions the
kingdom of Baza
• Sanga-anene:-a customary institution, a practice of
performing rituals as part of reconciliation process in case of
homicides. Held by male members of the society.
• The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture.
 6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
⚫ Begun from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when
the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
⚫ Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
⚫ Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar
at places like Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
⚫ Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established
his political seat there.
Among the major reforms during these
periods were:
o The restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, &
o The establishment of a royal prison at Amba
Wahni to solve problems stemming from power
rivalry.
o Close Door Policy
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its
first three successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–
67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682-
1706).
B. Major Achievements of
Due to its cultural development, Gonderine period
Gondar
is considered as “Ethiopian renaissance” among some
writers
 Some of its achievements include:
 Architecture: secular and religious buildings of
various sizes and shapes and bridges.
Painting: the production of a wealth of religious
paintings
 Literature: education and liturgical chanting
Trade & urbanization: at the period Gonder was a
town where active trade took-place and number
of residents increased.
 2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
⚫Zemene-Mesafint:- to the period when actual position of
political power was in the hands of different regional lords.
⚫Started from assassination of king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855,
when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Emperor Tewodros II.
⚫The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemdir, Lasta, Yejju,
Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
⚫The period came to an end as Kasa Hailu of Qwara fought
and defeated powerful regional lords in a series of battles
that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
 Major features of the Zemene-Mesafint were:
⚫ absence of effective central government;
⚫ the growing power and influence of the regional
warlords;
⚫the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in
northern Ethiopia;
⚫ rivalry and competition among regional lords to
assume the position of king maker (to attain the title
‘Ras’);
⚫establishment of fragile coalition to advance political
interests;
⚫Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed
Door Policy.”
The End of the Unit 5
 UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS &
EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA &
HORN, 1800-1941
During 19th C to 1941:-
Various autonomous southern states emerged.
Expansion of trade,
state formations,
territorial expansion and creation of modern
Ethiopia, modernization, and major battles
• Ethiopia & Horn fought major battles against the
imposition of colonial rule and resisted foreign
domination as patriotic resistance.
6.1. Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of
Ethiopia & the Horn
6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central,
Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia
A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata and
Gurage were autonomous & semi-autonomous
political entities during this period. Economically, they
depended largely on agriculture. Local merchants were
actively involved in local trade and to some extent in
the long distance trade. In the second half of the
nineteenth century, Qabena emerged as a strong
political entity. It became a centre of Muslim revivalist
movement to the northeast of the Gibe River.
B. The Gibe States: 19th C, several monarchical states
(motumma) emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the
expense of the Gadaa system. Many factors accounted
for the transformation of the Gadaa system. In the
process, the war leaders of the Gadaa system (Abba-
Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the power of
the Gadaa government
• Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of
the Gibe states. It was founded through the
incorporation of Enarya.
• ii. Gumma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed
Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state formation and
succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in
turn followed by Jawwe (1840-1854).
• i. iii. Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829)
who was succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (1829-
1840) who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by
Muslim Ulama/scholars.
• iv. Jimma: Towards the late eighteenth century,
Makahore emerged as an influential female figure
among the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma. The local
Abba Dula sought to take political power from her.
• v. Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be
formed. The process of state formation in Gera was
completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38),
a successful war leader who made himself king. Abba
Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after a short
interlude by Abba Basso.
C. The Leqa States
.
• Mecha Oromo of Wallaggas:- Leqa states, the
Sibu
and the Jawwi south of the Abbay River.
• I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in
1840, and reached its height under his successors
Moroda and Kumsa.
• II. Leqa-Qellam: was located in southwestern
Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and became
powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami
and controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.
• D. Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known
as Abba Bor) set up the well-consolidated state of Ilu-
Abba Bor in the early nineteenth century. It was one
of the prosperous states in the region.
• E. Nilotic Sheikdoms: in the early nineteenth century,
important Islamic centres emerged in the lower course of
the Abbay. A number of Shiekdoms were established
through parallel imposition of Arabic-speaking Sudanese
mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants. Among
them, the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul
and Khomosha were established to the south of Abbay
River and the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north of
the same river in the western edge of Gojjam.
• The influence of Islam from the Sudan and cross border
trade was the main reasons for the rise of these states. The
rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like
the Egyptians and Mahdists who attempted to control the
sheikdoms at different times.
 6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes (19th C )
• Trade routes which linked SW Ethiopia to the coast had
medieval antecedents, but it was in 19th that they attained
particular prominence. Because, there was revival of
external trade in the Red Sea region. Trade became one
means of maintaining strong relations across peoples of
different areas and backgrounds.
• Two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia
and the Horn. 1st line:- Bonga, the capital of Kafa
Kingdom, linked peoples & states of the southwestern
Ethiopia with the northern part of the Ethiopian region.
• 2nd major trade route also began from Bonga and passed
through Hirmata to Agabja-Andode-Toli to Soddo in
southwest Shewa; Rogge near Yerer.
 6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State
• 19th C, several states that emerged were involved in
territorial competition not only to extend control over
resources but also for state building.
• The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through
two distinct phases.
• The first one involved unifying different regions
and peoples in north and north central parts of Ethiopia.
• The second phase involved territorial expansion into the
southern parts of the country.
A. The Process of Territorial Unification
• The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the
imperial power, which had declined during the
Zemene-Mesafint. This occurred after a series of
battles and human and material losses. A leading
figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of Quara
who later became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia.
Kasa’s mission to create a unified state goes back to
the time when he was a shifta.
• He started his career by assisting his half−brother,
Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at Wad
Kaltabu (in present-day eastern Sudan) in 1837. As he
acquired military and political strength and
experiences, he started mobilizing his own army in
the area and fought battles in his own right.
• Accordingly, Kasa defeated :
Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November
27, 1852;
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazmachs
sent by Ras Ali, at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April
12, 1853;
Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and Dejjazmach Wube of
Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8 February, 1855.
After
defeatingthe major regional lords one after another, he
was
anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam
on 9 February 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros II (1855-
1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia.

Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to

the south. He subsequently marched first to Wollo and
then to Shewa. He wanted to create a strong
central
government by appointing individuals. But he
• As a result in a battle that took place at Maqdela,
Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on April 13,
1868.
• Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three
contenders to the throne emerged; namely, Wagshum
Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of
Shewa. Gobeze took state power immediately after
Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868−71).
• Kasa, who became Emperor Yohannes IV in January
1872, embarked on a state building project with an
approach that differed from that of Tewodros.
• Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to introduce a
decentralized system of administration, permitting
regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy.
• Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious
controversy within the EOC as well as effect religious
unity in the country as a whole. Externally, Emperor
Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and
the Mahdists at different times. He lost his life fighting
the latter at Metemma in 1889.
B.Territorial Expansion
• Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and
others made state building their mission and struggled
to achieve that goal. Yet, the most successful was
Menilek of Shewa. This was because Menilek had,
among other factors, access to modern firearms.
• The control of resource rich areas that enabled the
emperor to build military muscle as well as the
determination of his generals counted for his
successes. The process of territorial expansion by
Menilek can be discussed in three phases i.e. when he
was king of Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96 and the
aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
Cont’d
• Menilek's territorial expansion to western and
southwestern regions was concluded through both forceful
and peaceful submissions. In the regions south of the
Abbay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal
Tesema of Gojjam had already established his control over
the region since the mid1870s.

• Thus, Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot since 1881)

controlled the region until 1882, when he was defeated at
Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana. In the
Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from
1889 to 1901. The imperial army faced similar resistance
from Abba Bosso of Gomma, although defeated by Ras
Demisew Nesibu in early 1900.
Cont’d
• The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also
contributed to Menilek's territorial expansion to parts of
southern Ethiopia.
• Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied Dawuro-Konta and
Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively. The process of
territorial expansion was consummated with the signing of
boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial
powers that continued until 1908. Most of these treaties
were signed after the victory of Adwa.
• After Menilek, the process of centralization and
establishing a unitary state continued by abolishing
regional autonomies in the early decades of the twentieth
century.
 6.3. Modernization Attempts
• The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts
to adopt western ideas and technology by Ethiopian
monarchs. Although several Ethiopian regional rulers
were interested in European technologies, Emperor
Tewodros had relatively better information/contact
about western technologies than his predecessors. He
was well aware of the importance of European
technologies to transform his people and country. As a
monarch, Tewodros took a number of military,
administrative and socio-economic reform measures.
As regards the army, Tewodros introduced military
titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa.
 Con’td
• In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the
construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network
to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela.
He also attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
• Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several
important reforms and innovations. Among these, hewas
the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul
who served as his representative in London.
• He was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine
against smallpox replacing traditional inoculation.
Cont’d
• Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had
diverse elements.
• The post-Adwa period was marked by the establishment of a
- postal service and telecommunications/
- the telephone-telegraph system,
-the construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis
- Ababa, the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia)
and the introduction of silver coin. terms of administration, the
emperor introduced European style ministerial system/ministers
in 1907.
During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r.
1916-1930), there were several modernization attempts in
broader scope. The two rulers namely
Ras Teferi and Empress Zewditu had different views towards
western culture.
 6.4. Socio-Economic Developments
• The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by
changes in socio-economic conditions including trade,
slavery and slave trade, agriculture, urbanization and
manufacturing. Factors for these changes included the
socio-economic dynamics in the region and the world.
• The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were
times when agricultural economy grew and thedemand
for land for cultivation and grazing increased. The
system favored the powerful groups to control land
that resulted in the change of property right on the
preexisting land tenure system.
6.4.1. Agriculture and Land
•Tenure
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were
times when agricultural economy grew and the
demand for land for cultivation and grazing increased.
The system favored the powerful groups to control
land that resulted in the change of property right on
the preexisting land tenure system.
• The role of agriculture in the local economy and the
politics of the period could be understood from the
territorial competition and expansions to control
surplus producing areas
6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade

• Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia

and the Horn. Most slaves in Ethiopia were kept as
domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the
Middle East and the Ottoman Empire through the
Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports.
• During the nineteenth century, slave trade expanded in
Ethiopia and the Horn due to increased demand for
slaves in foreign markets largely in the Middle East.
This was followed by the emergence of market centers
from Bonga to Metemma and Massawa.
• Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek
II tried to stop the slave trade although not slavery
itself. In
6.4.3. Manufacturing
• In many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were
age-old indigenous ways of producing/making
Such manufacturing
tools. involved simple
procedures and techniques
activities
and quantity of items. produced limited
• One result of the contact with the industrialized world
from the mid nineteenth century was the introduction
of manufacturing technologies.
6.4.4. Urbanization
• The period from the early nineteenth century to 194l
marked the evolution of towns stemming from political,
socio-economic, demographic and ecological factors.
• During the period, the expansion of both local and long
distance trade since the early nineteenth century had
transformed old markets and socio-political centers into
towns in Ethiopia and the Horn.

• In addition, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti

and Addis Ababa as of 1917 was followed by the
evolution of several fast growing towns. Towns including
Dire- Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others were
results of the extension of the railway and the expansion
of trade. On the other hand, politico-religious centers in
several parts of the region evolved into towns.
6.5. External Relations
6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties
• One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end
of the 'close door policy’ that was introduced by
Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). Thus, beginning from
the early 1800s, regional rulers made independent
foreign contacts and signed treaties. During the
nineteenth century, the agents of these external
relations were mainly travelers.
• One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt
who reached the court of Ras Wolde-Selassie of
Tigray on 28 August 1805.
Cont’d
• Several British travelers including Christian Kugler
also arrived in the 1830s.
• Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a
scholar) arrived in 1846; Captain W.C. Harris,
leading an official British mission visited Shewa.
• John Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s, the
Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like arrived
for trade relation and scientific purposes.
Con’td
• External relations during the reign of Tewodros II
seemed more elaborate and oriented towards obtaining
western technology and military support to defend
against foreign aggression. As with his predecessors,
Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create strong relations
with Europeans. The major concerns of Emperor
Yohannes IV were the restoration of the lost
territories, the delimitation of boundaries and the
defense of the sovereignty of the state against the
threat and interference by foreign powers.
Cont’d
• In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external
threats, Emperor Menilek II was more successful
through maintaining the balance among powerful
forces of the period. While he was king of Shewa, he
established commercial relation with Italy that later
helped him to acquire military equipment.
• Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with
the signing of the Wuchale Treaty.
• International politics of 20th C also shaped Ethiopia’s
foreign relations. For instance, during the First World
War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with
the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, and
Ottoman Empire) believing that the defeat of the Allied
powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to
push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia.
• One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the
early twentieth century was her admission to the League
of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand
European tour, which shaped his ideas of modernization.
6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against
Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism
The Battle of Dabarki (1848 :Dabarki was fought
between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in
1848. Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the
battle,due to the military imbalance. This later
initiated him to widen his vision and mission when he
became emperor.
The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros imprisoned
Captain Cameron and other British Europeans. On
April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers
including his general Gebriye were fight and defeated
by the British at the battle of Aroge. On April 13,
1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela.
 Battles of Gundet and Gura
In 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to
invade Ethiopia in three directions. e two batteles
were conducted btwen Egypt and Ethiopia during
the period of Yhoansis IV. Ethiopia, led about 500
Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket
tubes.
Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized
about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians
at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where
the Egyptian troopswere severely defeated.
Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent
their army to invade Ethiopia. However, the
Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of
Gura (7–9 March, 1876).
Con’td
The Battle of Dogali :During the late nineteenth
century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea
area.
• In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from
Egypt to Italy. By using these bases as springboard,
Italy began to penetrate into northern Ethiopia.
Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet
and Wia in the then Mereb Milash region. However,
they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali
by Ras Alula Engida, Emperor Yohannes’s famous
general and right hand man. Following this battle,
Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in
October 1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor Yohannes.
 Con’td
The Battle of Metemma :the Hewett Treaty caused
clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that
lasted from 1885 to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit
between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September
1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious.
In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-
Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. Emperor
Yohannes faced what can be called a triangular tension,
namely the Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the
west and northwest, and his two vassals in the center. in
another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute
Dilli (in Najjo-Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras
Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888.
፡Emperor Yohannes made a national call:
የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ ኢትዮጵያ የተባለችዉ
ሀገር:
1ኛ እናትህ ናት፤ 2ኛ ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ
ናት፤
4ኛ ልጅህ ናት፤5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት። እንግዲህ
የእናትን ፍቅር፣ የዘዉድን ክብር፣የሚስትን
የዋህነት፣ የልጅን ደስታ፣ የመቃብርን
ከከባቲነት አስበህ ተነስ!
on March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to
Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.
Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal
 The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
•The disagreement on the Wuchale
Treaty finally led to the big battle
between Ethiopia and Italian forces.
Following Emperor Menilek's
proclamation for general mobilization,
about 100,000 troops from every part
of the country gathered at Wara-Illu
(in today’s South Wollo).
•In January 1896, under the leadership
of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces
defeated Italians at Mekelle
Con’td
• A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor
Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war generals like Ras
Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha
and Negus Tekle-Haymanot and others encountered
the Italians at Adwa. The result of this battle was a
decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the
Italians, which doomed their colonial ambition over
Ethiopia. At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters
were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000 were captured.
On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are
said to have been killed.
• Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of
Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa that was signed
on October 26, 1896.
 6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation
(1936-41) and thePatriotic
Resistance
A. Background
Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the
Italians suspended their expansionist colonial
policy in Northeast Africa for a short time.
However, they were just waiting for the right
time to fulfill their ambitions in any possible
way. Italy eventually got its ideological strength
in 1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini
held power.
The Fascists were determined to restore the
power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by
avenging Italy’s shameful scar at Adwa.
 B. The 1935 Invasion and
After
•After they completed their
preparations, the Italians waged their
aggression via two major fronts: the
northern and the southern Front. The
war was startedin the northern Front
when the Italians crossed the Mereb
River on October 3, 1935 and
launched a three pronged invasion
and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and
Mekelle.
Con’td
• In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter offensive force
marched north through three fronts. Ras Emiru Haile-
Selassie led the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu (also
commander of the entire northern front), Ras Seyum
Mengesha led the central front, and Ras Mulugeta
Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front.
• On January 20, 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a
major offensive against the Italians intending to isolate
Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack
of coordination
• among the above-mentioned commanders. On January
24, the Ethiopian force lost to the Italians at the first
Battle in Temben.
 C.The Patriotic Resistance
Movement
•The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41)
was not a smooth experience. Rather, the
Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a
number of ways. Among others, the
patriots gave them hard times largely in
rural areas. They continuously harassed
them. Ethiopian patriots continued their
resistance in almost all regions and by all
ethnic groups of the empire with varying
degree of intensification.
Con’td
•The first phase of resistance was the
continuation of the war itself. Among the
highlights of this phase was the resistance
waged by three commanders of the Southern
Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene
Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari. An
extension of this phase was a five pronged
assault on the capital in the summer of 1936.
•The campaign involved two sons of Ras Kasa
Hailu (Asfawesen and Aberra), the veteran of
Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later
Ras) Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-
Mariam Yinnnadu.
Con’td
• The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the
Italian occupation in 1941. On 19 February 1937, two
young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges
Asgedom, hurled a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-
Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him
seriously and killing some others.
• list a few patriots that we think can represent different
parts of Ethiopia. Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel
Abdisa Aga, Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, Dejjazmach
Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay,
Woizero Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel
Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru,