NERVOUS SYSTEM

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Mr. Anil sah

Faculty of Radiography
DEFINITION
 The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main
feature is to generate, modulate and transmit information
between all the different parts of the human body.
OR
 The system which controls, regulates and coordinates various
body activities is called nervous system.
Functions of nervous system
 The nerve impulses are carried to or from the brain .These
impulses are interpreted and analyzed.
 It links and coordinates the activities of various systems and
organs.
 It stimulates or inhibits the function of glands, visceral organs
etc.
 The sensory organs like eye, ear, nose, tongue, and skin help
to receive information from the environment.
 It helps to maintain steady state of body.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The central nervous
system consists of brain
and spinal cord.
BRAIN
 The brain lies in the cranial cavity. Average weight is about
1.5kg. The brain consists of the following parts:
a) Cerebrum
b) Mid brain
c) Pons Brain stem
d) Medulla
e) Cerebellum
CEREBRUM
 The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain which is made up of two
cerebral hemispheres.
 Such as right cerebral hemisphere and left cerebral hemisphere, both
cerebral hemispheres are connected by thick band of nerve fibers
called corpus callosum.
 Each hemisphere contains a cavity called the lateral ventricle.
 The cerebrum is divided into four lobes such as frontal lobe, parietal
lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe by three fissures such as central
sulcus, lateral sulcus and parieto-occipital fissures.
 The surface of each hemisphere is covered by thin layer of grey matter
called the cerebral cortex.
Functions of cerebrum
 Mental activities such as thinking, memory, intelligence,
reasoning, feeling, emotions, speech.
 Sensory perception including perception of pain, temperature,
touch, hearing, taste and smell.
 Initiation and control of voluntary muscle contraction.
BRAIN STEM
Mid brain
 Mid brain is the smallest part of brain. It lies between the
cerebrum and the Pons varolii.
 It consists of nuclei and nerve fibers (tracts), which connect
the cerebrum with lower part of the brain and with the spinal
cord.
 The mid brain consists two parts:
a) Tectum
b) Cerecebral pedicles
Functions of mid brain:
 Midbrain controls many important functions such as the visual
and auditory systems as well as eye movement.
 Mid brain is involved in the control of body movement.

Pons
 This is the middle part of the brain stem situated in front of
the cerebellum, below the midbrain and above the medulla
oblongata, it consists of nerve fibers (white matter) that forms
bridge between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum.
 The Pons measures about 2.5 cm in length.
Functions of Pons:-
 Pons is important sensory relay system which provides
information to different parts of the nervous system like the
cerebellum, cerebrum and even the spinal cord.
 The Pons also contains the sleep paralysis center of the brain
and also plays a role in generating dreams.
 The Pons contains accessory breathing centers called the
Apneustic center and the Pneumotaxic center.
I. The Pneumotaxic center helps to turn off the inspiratory
center.
II. The Apneustic center helps to turn on the inspiratory center.
 The Pons is also a motor relay center.
I. Descending motor nerve fibers frequently synapse in the
Pons.
II. Thus, injury to the Pons can result in motor deficits
(paralysis).
Medulla oblongata
 The medulla oblongata is most caudal part of the brain
stem, simply known as the medulla.
 It extends from lower border of the Pons and above the 1st
cranial nerve where it is continuous with spinal cord .
 It is about 2.5cm long and lies within the cranium above the
foramen magnum.
Functions of medulla:-
 The medulla contains the vital centres.i.e cardiovascular
center, respiratory center, reflex centers, and vasomotor
centre.
I. The cardiovascular center of medulla controls the rate and
force of cardiac contraction and also controls the blood
pressure.
II. The respiratory center of medulla controls the rate and
depth of respiration.
III. The reflex center of medulla causes vomiting, coughing,
sneezing and swallowing.
IV. The vasomotor centre of medulla controls the diameter of
blood vessels.
CEREBELLUM

 The cerebellum is the little brain, located behind the Pons &
medulla and below the cerebrum within posterior cranial
fossa.
 The outer surface of cerebellum consist of grey matter and
inner surface consist of white matter.
 The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem by bundle of
nerve fibers called cerebellar peduncles.
Functions of cerebellum:

 It co-ordinates muscular body movement.

 The cerebellum maintains the tone, posture, and equilibrium.
 It controls reflex action of skeletal muscles activities.
 It receives information from ears and controls voluntary
movements.
 Leaning through trial and error.
SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord is the elongated and cylindrical lower part of
the central nervous system.
 It is continuous above with the medulla and extends from the
foramen magnum in occipital bone to the lower border of the
1st lumbar vertebra.
 It is about 45 cm long in adult males and 40 cm in adult
females
Structure of spinal cord
 The spinal cord is divided into two parts:
a) Grey matter
b) White matter

A. Grey matter:-
 The grey matter is the inner part of spinal cord, seen in “H”
shaped structure, having two posterior, two anterior and two
lateral columns.
 The grey matter of spinal cord consists of nerve cell bodies,
dendrites, and part of axon.
B. White matter:-
 The periphery area of the spinal cord is called white matter
which consists of bundle of both myelinated and non
myelinated nerve fibers.
 The white matter of the spinal cord is arranged in three
columns or tract, anterior, posterior and lateral.
MENINGES
 Meninges are connective tissue membrane, covering the brain
and spinal cord.
 They lie between the skull and the brain, between vertebrae
and spinal cord.
 The meninges have three layers.
a) Dura mater(Outer)
b) Arachnoid mater(Middle)
c) Pia mater(Inner)
 The Dura mater and arachnoid mater are separated by a
space called subdural space.
 The arachnoid mater and Pia mater are separated by the
subarachnoid space containing cerebrospinal fluid.
Functions of meninges
a. Meninges protect the brain and spinal cord.
b. The folds of duramater prevent movement of the brain.
c. It provides support to the spinal cord.
CEREBRO SPINAL FLUID (C.S.F)
 The cerebrospinal fluid is the colourless, transparent, clear
modified tissue fluid. It is contained in the ventricular system
of the brain and in the subarachnoid space around the brain
and spinal cord.
Formation of CSF
 The cerebrospinal fluid is formed by ependymal cells of
choroid plexuses of the lateral ventricles, and lesser amounts
of the choroid plexuses of the 3rd and 4th ventricles.
 Rate of formation-0.5ml/minute
 Volume – 150ml
Circulation of CSF
From Lateral ventricles
Through the interventricular foramen (foramen of monro)
3rd ventricle
Through the cerebral aqueduct (aqueductus Sylvius)
4th ventricle
Through the median aperture (foramen of magendi) &
lateral apertures (foramen of luska)
Cisterna magna and cisterna lateralis

Spinal Subarachnoid space

Note: - The greater part of the fluid passes upwards, over the brainstem
to the surface of cerebral hemispheres)
Absorption of CSF
 CSF is absorbed chiefly through the arachnoids villi and
granulation. It is also absorbed by veins related to spinal
nerves.
Composition of CSF
 Volume – 150ml Specific
 gravity:-1005
 Reaction:-Alkaline
 Water – 99.13%
 Solids – 0.87%:- Protein, Amino acids, Sugar, Cholesterol,
Urea, uric acid.
Functions of CSF
 It supports and protects the brain and spinal cord.
 It maintains a uniform pressure around the brain and spinal
cord.
 It keeps the brain and spinal cord moist.
 It acts as a cushion and shock absorber between the brain and
the cranial bones.
 The nutritive substances and waste materials are interchange
into CSF and blood.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The peripheral nervous system consists of:

1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system
1. Somatic nervous system
 The somatic nervous system includes the nerves supplying the skeletal
muscle (Voluntary controls).The somatic nervous system controls the
movement of the body by acting on the skeletal muscles.
 The somatic nervous system is composed of two types of nerves. These
are:
A. Cranial nerves
B. Spinal nerves
CRANIAL NERVES

 Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from

the brain (including the brainstem), of which there are
conventionally considered twelve pairs.
 Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts
of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and
neck, including the special senses of vision, taste, smell,
and hearing.
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves originating from nuclei in
the inferior surface of the brain
NO. NAME TYPE FUNCTION
I Olfactory Sensory Smell
II Optic Sensory Vision , visual information
III Oculomotor Motor Eye movement , pupil constriction , (moving the
eye ball medially , upward and downwoard)
IV Trochlear Motor Eye movement (moving the eye ball downward
and outward)
V Trigeminal Mixed Sensation for the face, motor to muscles of
chewing.
VI Abducent Motor Eye movement (moving eye ball laterally)
VII Facial Mixed Taste sensation, facial expression, secretion of
tear and saliva
VIII Vestibulocochlear Sensory Hearing balance
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed Sense of taste, pharynx movement, secretion of
saliva
X Vagus Mixed Heart, lungs. GIT, ear
XI Accessory Motor Movement of neck and shoulder
XII Hypoglossal Motor Tongue movement
SPINAL NERVES
 The nerves arising from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. There
are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
 These nerves arise from the side of spinal cord by passing through the
intervertebral foramina formed by adjacent vertebra. They are:
1. Cervical - 8 pairs (In neck region).
2. Thoracic – 12 pairs (In thorax region).
3. Lumbar - 5 pairs (Upper abdomen region).
4. Sacral – 5 pairs (Lower abdomen region).
5. Coccygeal – 1 pair (In tail region).
 The spinal nerves are mixed nerve. They Carry both sensory (afferent)
and motor (efferent) impulses.
 Each spinal nerve is originated by two roots: –
1. Dorsal or sensory or afferent root- It is continuation of dorsal
horn and formed by grey matter. It carries impulses towards
the spinal cord.
2. Ventral or Motor or efferent root - It is continuation of ventral
horn and formed by grey matter. It carries impulses to the
target organs like gland, muscles etc.
NERVE PLEXUS
 A nerve plexus is a plexus (branching network) of intersecting nerves. A
nerve plexus is composed of afferent and efferent fibers that arise from
the merging of the anterior rami of spinal nerves and blood vessels.
 There are five spinal nerve plexuses, except in the thoracic region, as
well as other forms of autonomic plexuses, many of which are a part of
the enteric nervous system.
 The nerves that arise from the plexuses have both sensory and motor
functions. These functions include muscle contraction, the
maintenance of body coordination and control, and the reaction to
sensations such as heat, cold, pain, and pressure.
 There are several plexuses in the body, including:
Spinal Plexuses
1.Cervical plexus - serves the head, neck and shoulders
2.Brachial plexus - serves the chest, shoulders, arms and hands
3.Lumbosacral plexus
a.Lumbar plexus - serves the back, abdomen, groin, thighs, knees, and calves
 Subsartorial plexus - below the sartorius muscle of thigh
b.Sacral plexus - serves the pelvis, buttocks, genitals, thighs, calves, and feet
c.Pudendal plexus
4.Coccygeal plexus - serves a small region over the coccyx
Autonomic Plexuses
a) Celiac plexus (solar plexus) - serves internal organs
b) Auerbach's plexus (myenteric plexus) - serves the gastrointestinal
tract
c) Meissner's plexus (submucosal plexus) - serves the gastrointestinal
tract
d) Pharyngeal plexus of vagus nerve - serves the palate and pharynx
e) Cardiac plexus - serves the heart
SENSE ORGANS
 Sense organs are highly specialized organs and are controlled
by central nervous system.
 Sense organs are also called receptors. The sense organs are
the organs of special senses which are made up of sensory
cells.
 The receptors respond to external as well as internal
stimulation, before environmental information can be
transmitted to brain.
 Sensation is the conscious or unconscious awareness of
external or internal stimuli.
TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS
NO. RECEPTORS FUNCTIONS
1 Chemoreceptor Taste and Smell
2 Machanorecepyor Proprioceptors in joints, receptors for hearing
3 Nociceptors Pain receptors
4 Thermo receptors Heat and cold
5 Photoreceptore Vision
SPECIAL SENSORY ORGANS
 These are highly specialized organs of our body which are
concerned with the special sensation.
1. Eye:-Sight (seen) (Photoreceptors).
2. Ear:-Hearing and Equilibrium (Phonoreceptors (Organ of
corti).
3. Nose:-Smell (Olfactoreceptors).
4. Tongue:-Taste (Gustatoreceptors).
5. Skin:-Feeling for touch, pain, pressure and temperature.

 Receptors of vision, hearing and smell receive stimuli from

distance; hence, these are called Teloreceptors.
EYE
 Eye is a photosensitive organ and also called organ of sight. It is lying in
the orbit of skull, and is supplied by the optic nerve ( II cranial nerve) .
 Eye is a hollow spherical in shape, measures about 2.5cm diameter.

STRUCTURE OF EYE
 There are three layers of tissue in the wall of the eye:

1. Outer fibrous layer: - Formed of sclera and cornea.

2. Middle vascular layer: - Formed of choroid, ciliary body and iris.
3. Inner nervous layer: - Formed of retina.
Outer layer
1. Sclera: - The sclera is the white opaque, fibrous, protective,
outer layer of the eye containing collagen fiber. It is also
known as the white of the eye. The sclera covers 5/6 of the
eye ball posteriorly. The sclera is protective in nature and
maintains definite shape of eye.
2. Cornea:- The cornea is composed of transparent membrane
of epithelial tissue. It covers 1/6 parts of eye anteriorly. It has
no blood supply, but it is richly supplied by sensory nerves.
Cornea allows light to pass into lens.
Middle layer
 It is vascular layer consisting of the choroid, ciliary body and
iris.
1. Choroid:-The choroid is also known as the choroidea or
choroid coat. It is a thin pigmented vascular layer of eye,
containing connective tissue, and lying between the retina
and the sclera.
Functions:-
 The choroid provides oxygen and nourishment to the outer
layers of the retina. Along with the ciliary body and iris, the
choroid forms the uveal tract.
 Light enters the eye through the pupil, stimulates the sensory
receptors in the retina and is then absorbed by the choroid.
2. Ciliary body:-
 The ciliary body is a thin vascular middle layer of the eye that
is situated between the sclera and the retina. It possesses two
sets of ciliary muscles and suspensory ligament.
Functions:-
 To change the shape of lens due to contraction and relaxation
of ciliary muscle.
 It is attached to the lens and holds it in position.
 Ciliary body is also the production of the aqueous humor,
which is responsible for providing most of the nutrients for the
lens and the cornea and involved in waste management of
these areas.
3. Iris:-
 It is the coloured structure and forms the anterior most part
of middle layer.
 It is a thin circular diaphragm, placed in front of the lens. It has
a circular opening in the center called pupil. Iris is a muscular
structure and has two muscles.
a. Constrictor papillae: - This is also known as sphincter muscle
or sphincter pupillae, which is formed by circular muscle
fibers. Contraction of this muscle causes constriction of pupil.
b. Dilator pupillae: - This is also called papillary dilator muscle,
which is formed by radial muscle fibers. Contraction of this
muscle causes dilatation of pupil.
Inner layer
1. Retina:-
 The retina is the innermost neural and sensory layer of the
eye ball. The retina is composed of several layers of nerve
cell bodies and pigmented layer of epithelial cells which
attached with the choroid.
 The light sensitive layer consists of sensory receptors cells
called rods and cones, which contain photosensitive
pigments that convert light rays into nerve impulses. The
rods contain a pigment called visual purple or rhodopsin.
They can respond to dim light (Scotopic vision).The cons
respond only to bright light (photopic vision) and are
sensitive to colour.
Lens:-
 Lens is the transparent biconcave structure. It is situated between iris
and vitreous.
 It has two surfaces, two poles and equator. The curvature of anterior
surface is about 10mm, while that of posterior surface is 6mm.
 It is suspended by suspensory ligaments to the ciliary body.
 The lens matter is plastic in nature while lens capsule is elastic in
nature.
 This quality helps the lens to change its curvature in the act of
accommodation. Anterior surface is fixed by epithelium.
 There is no epithelium on posterior surface. Lens derived its nutrition
from aqueous humor.
ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE EYE
 The accessory structure is present around the eye, which helps in
protection and proper functioning of the eye. these include:
a) eyebrows
b) eyelids & eye lashes
c) lacrimal apparatus
d) conjunctiva
e) muscles of the eye
A. EYEBROWS:- The numerous hair projects obliquely from the surface of
the skin surrounding the supra-orbital margins of the frontal bones
known as eyebrows
Function:-It protects the anterior aspect of the eyeball from sweat, dust
and other foreign bodies.
EYELIDS & EYE LASHES:-The eye lids are two movable muscular folds situated
above and below the front of the eye. The outgrowth of hairs in eye lids is called
eye lashes.
Functions:
 It protects the eyeball from excessive light, foreign body and injuries.
 It spreads of tear film over cornea and conjunctiva.
 They keep the cornea clean and moist.

C. LACRIMAL APPARATUS:-The structure concerned with secretion and drainage

of the tear known as lacrimal apparatus.
The lacrimal apparatus is made up of the following parts:
 Lacrimal gland=1
 Lacrimal canaliculi=2
 Lacrimal sac=1
 Nasolacrimal duct=1
D. CONJUNCTIVA:-

 Conjunctiva is a thin, transparent mucous membrane, which

covers the internal palpebral surfaces and folds on to the
anterior sclera and cornea.
 The conjunctiva helps to protect the eye ball and keeps it
moist.
E. MUSCLES OF THE EYE:- Eyeball is moved by six different types
of eye muscles. They are:
NO. MUSCLES NERVE SUPPLY ACTION

1 Medial rectus muscle Oculomotor nerve(3rd cranial Rotates the eyeball inwards.
nerve)

2 Lateral rectus muscle Abducent nerve(6th cranial nerve) Rotates the eyeball outwards.

3 Superior rectus muscle Oculomotor nerve(3rd cranial Rotates the eyeball upwards.
nerve)

4 Inferior rectus muscle Oculomotor nerve(3rd cranial Rotates the eyeball downwards.
nerve)

5 Superior oblique muscle Trochlear nerve(4th cranial nerve) Rotates the eyeball downward and
outwards.

6 Inferior oblique muscle Oculomotor nerve(3rd cranial Rotates the eyeball upwards and
nerve) outwards
EAR
 The ear has a double function of hearing and maintaining
equilibrium of the body.
 The ear is sensitive to frequencies of sound waves and
changes in relation to gravity. It is also called phonoreceptor
organ.
 It is supplied by the 8th cranial nerve, i.e. the cochlear part of
the vestibulocochlear nerve which is stimulated by vibrations
caused by sound waves.
STRUCTURE OF EAR
 Ear is divided into three parts:
1. EXTERNAL EAR
 It is the external part of ear. It is formed of two parts:
A. Auricle (Pinna): The Pinna is an external ear consists of fibro
cartilage, covered by connective tissue and skin. It consists of
outer prominent ridge called helix. The lower inner end of ear
consists of lobule which is made up of elastic fibrous and
adipose tissues.
B. Internal acoustic meatus (auditory canal):-
 The auditory canal is long tube like, slightly S-shaped and
about 3 cm long in adults.
 It is lined with skin and supported by fibro cartilage at its
opening and by the temporal bone for the rest of its length.
 It contains Ceruminous (wax gland) and sebaceous glands. The
wax gland is modified sweat gland secretes a waxy/oil
substance which prevents the foreign bodies entering the ear.

2. MIDDLE EAR
 The middle ear consists of tympanic membrane and tympanic
cavity with auditory ossicles.
a.Tympanic membrane:-
 Tympanic membrane is a thin, translucent, cone shaped
structure situated between external acoustic meatus and
middle ear.
 It is oval in shape, measuring about 9x10mm.It is covered by
skin in its outer surface and by mucous membrane in its
inner surface.
 The central part of tympanic membrane is called umbo.
Function-
 It vibrates with the sound waves and conducts the sound to
ossicles.
b. Tympanic cavity: -
 The tympanic cavity is also known as tympanum. It is a small,
narrow, laterally compressed chamber, situated within the
temporal lobe.
 The tympanic cavity connected to pharynx by a Eustachian or
auditory tube. The Eustachian tube helps to keep air pressure
equal on both sides of tympanic membrane.
 The tympanic cavity is separated from external auditory
meatus by tympanic membrane. The tympanic cavity contains
three small bony ossicles called ear ossicles. The ossicles are:
1. Malleus
2. Incus
3. Stapes