Geographic

Information System &

Tariq Abdullah
Geospatial Analysis Department of Geomatics
IUST
 GIS--What is it?
No easy answer anymore!
• Geographic/Geospatial Information
– information about places on the earth’s surface
– knowledge about “what is where when”
(Don’t forget time!)
– Geographic/geospatial: synonymous

• GIS--what’s in the S?
– Systems: the technology
– Science: the concepts and theory
– Studies: the societal context
Spatial Analysis
 Understanding the relationships and patterns between
locations and objects on the Earth’s surface. It helps in
answering questions like "Where is it?", "What is
nearby?", "What has changed?", and "What patterns
exist?".
Real-World Example:
Urban Planning and Smart Cities
•Scenario: Building a new hospital.
•Spatial Analysis : Using spatial data, the planner can analyze existing hospitals,
road networks, population density, and emergency response times. This helps in
selecting a location that serves the maximum number of people with easy
accessibility.
•Real-World Example: In many countries, GIS is used to analyze 911 call response
times and plan the optimal location of new fire stations.
 Defining Geographic Information Systems
(GIS)
• The common ground between information processing and the
many fields using spatial analysis techniques. (Tomlinson,
1972)
• A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving,
transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world.
(Burroughs, 1986)
• A computerised database management system for the capture,
storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial (locationally
defined) data. (NCGIA, 1987)
• A decision support system involving the integration of spatially
referenced data in a problem solving environment. (Cowen,
1988)
 How GIS differs from Related Systems
• DBMS--typical MIS data base contains implicit but not explicit locational information
– city, county, zip code, etc. but no geographical coordinates
– is 100 N. High around the corner or across town from 200 E Main?
• automated mapping (AM) --primarily two-dimensional display devices
– thematic mapping (choropleth,etc such as SAS/GRAPH, DIDS, business mapping
software) unable to relate different geographical layers (e.g zip codes and
counties)
– automated cartography--graphical design oriented; limited database ability
• facility management (FM) systems--
– lack spatial analysis tools
• CAD/CAM (computer aided design/drafting)--primarily 3-D graphic
creation (engineering design) & display systems
– don’t reference via geographic location
• CAD sees the world as a 3-D cube, GIS as a 3-D sphere
– limited (if any) database ability (especially for non-spatial data)
• scientific visualization systems--sophisticated multi-dimensional graphics, but:
– lack database support
– lack two-dimensional spatial analysis tools
 Why Study GIS?
• local government activities estimated to be geographically based
– zoning, public works (streets, water supply, sewers), garbage collection, land
ownership and valuation, public safety (fire and police)
• a significant portion of state government has a geographical component
– natural resource management
– highways and transportation
• businesses use GIS for a very wide array of applications
– retail site selection & customer analysis
– logistics: vehicle tracking & routing
– natural resource exploration (petroleum, etc.)
– precision agriculture
– civil engineering and construction
• Military and defense
– Battlefield management
– Satellite imagery interpretation
• scientific research employs GIS
– geography, geology, botany
– anthropology, sociology, economics, political science
– Epidemiology, criminology
 The major areas of GIS application
• Local Government
– Public works/infrastructure management
(roads, water, sewer)
– Planning and environmental management
– property records and appraisal
• Real Estate and Marketing
– Retail site selection, site evaluation
• Public safety and defense
– Crime analysis, fire prevention, emergency
management, military/defense
• Natural resource exploration/extraction
– Petroleum, minerals, quarrying
• Transportation
– Airline route planning, transportation
planning/modeling
• The Geospatial Industry
– Data development, application development,
programming
 Examples of Applied GIS
• Urban Planning, Management &
Policy
– Zoning, subdivision planning
– Land acquisition
– Economic development
– Code enforcement
– Housing renovation programs
– Emergency response
– Crime analysis
– Tax assessment
• Environmental Sciences
– Monitoring environmental risk
– Modeling stormwater runoff
– Management of watersheds,
floodplains, wetlands, forests, aquifers
– Environmental Impact Analysis
– Hazardous or toxic facility siting
– Groundwater modeling and
contamination tracking
• Political Science
– Redistricting
– Analysis of election results
– Predictive modeling
 • Civil Engineering/Utility
– Locating underground facilities
– Designing alignment for freeways, transit
– Coordination of infrastructure
maintenance
• Business
– Demographic Analysis
– Market Penetration/ Share Analysis
– Site Selection
• Education Administration
– Attendance Area Maintenance
– Enrollment Projections
– School Bus Routing
• Real Estate
– Neighborhood land prices
– Traffic Impact Analysis
– Determination of Highest and Best Use
• Health Care
– Epidemiology
– Needs Analysis
– Service Inventory
Walmart uses GIS to optimize supply chains and to select
During COVID-19, Esri’s Health GIS Hub was used globally to store locations based on demographic and spending data.
visualize case hotspots and vaccine deployment.
 What GIS Applications Do:
manage, analyze, communicate
• make possible the automation of activities involving geographic data
– map production
– calculation of areas, distances, route lengths
– measurement of slope, aspect, viewshed
– logistics: route planning, vehicle tracking, traffic management

• allow for the integration of data hitherto confined to independent domains (e.g
property maps and air photos).
• by tieing data to maps, permits the succinct communication of complex spatial
patterns (e.g environmental sensitivity).
• provides answers to spatial queries (how many elderly in Awantipora live farther
than 10 minutes at rush hour from ambulance service?)
• perform complex spatial modelling (what if scenarios for transportation planning,
disaster planning, resource management, utility design)
Open-Source and Proprietary GIS Software
 Open-Source GIS Software: Software with source code that anyone
can inspect, modify, and enhance. Often free to use.
 Proprietary GIS Software: Software developed and sold by
companies. Closed source, licensed for a fee.

Criteria Open-Source GIS Proprietary

GIS
Cost Free to use Licensing fees (can
be costly)
Source Code Fully open Not accessible
Access
Community Forums, GitHub, volunteer Vendor support and
Support contributors documentation
Updates & Frequent, driven by Vendor-scheduled
Innovation community needs updates
Customization Highly customizable (e.g., Limited or vendor-
plugin development in dependent
QGIS)
Reliability & Varies, can be less Professional tech
Support consistent support, SLAs
Examples
 Open-Source:
o QGIS: Easy GUI, plugin support
o GRASS GIS: Powerful raster analysis
tools
o MapServer: Web-based mapping service
o GeoServer: Publishes data from any
major spatial data source
 Proprietary:
o ArcGIS Desktop / Pro: Advanced
analysis, ModelBuilder, 3D tools
o MapInfo Professional: Often used in
business and telecom
o ERDAS Imagine: Specialized for satellite
imagery analysis
 Use Cases
 Open-source is popular in academic research,
NGOs, startups
 Proprietary tools dominate government,
enterprise, defense sectors
Web GIS and is Applications

What is Web GIS?

 A system to create, manage, analyze, and visualize
geospatial data through a web browser
 Based on cloud computing and web services
 Core Components
1. Client Side
Browser-based front end (HTML/JS) using tools like
Leaflet, OpenLayers, Mapbox GL
2. Server Side
 Spatial data servers: GeoServer, ArcGIS Server
 Database: PostGIS, Oracle Spatial
3. Data Services
 Web services (WMS (Web Map Service), WFS
(Web Feature Service), and WMTS (Web Map Tile
Service)
 REST APIs for real-time updates

 Advantages
 Real-time mapping (e.g., vehicle tracking)
 Multi-user collaboration: Many users can
view/edit
 No software installation: Just a web browser
 Integration with other platforms: Mobile apps,
IoT, dashboards
Desktop GIS: Features and Use Cases

What is Desktop GIS?

 A software suite installed on a personal computer or workstation
 Offers full-featured geospatial capabilities (vector, raster, analysis,
symbology)
Core Features
1. Data Import & Management
 Supports many formats (Shapefiles, GeoTIFF, CSV, GPKG)
 Spatial databases (PostGIS, SpatiaLite)
2. Visualization & Cartography
 Layer styling, symbol libraries, map labeling
 Legends, scale bars, and north arrows
 Print Composer (QGIS) / Layout View (ArcGIS)
3. Spatial Analysis Tools
 Buffer, clip, intersect, union
 Raster calculator (map algebra)
 Terrain modeling, slope, aspect analysis
4. Attribute Data Analysis
 Select by attributes/location
 Field calculator for custom expressions
 Joins and relates between tables  Use Cases with Examples

5. Coordinate Reference Systems  Urban Planning: Identifying land use zones, visualizing
 Reproject layers development constraints

 Define projections  Disaster Management: Mapping flood-prone zones using elevation

data
6. Plugin & Scripting
 QGIS Plugins: Georeferencer, QuickMapServices  Agriculture: NDVI calculation using satellite imagery
 ArcGIS: ModelBuilder, Python scripting (ArcPy)  Public Health: Identifying disease clusters using spatial joins
 Much more………
Check out the following

 Free Web GIS Platforms for Students

 ArcGIS Online (student license)

 Google Earth Engine (academic accounts)
 GeoServer (for local deployments)
 Mapbox Studio (free tiers)
 MOBILE GIS AND CLOUD GIS

What is Mobile GIS?

 A type of GIS that runs on mobile devices
(smartphones, tablets)
 Enables field data collection, editing, GPS
integration, and real-time updates
 Often integrated with cloud or web GIS for data
synchronization
Core Features:
 GPS-enabled mapping
 Offline data access
 Data collection forms (e.g., Survey123, Collector for
ArcGIS)
 Camera/GPS sensor integration

Key Components

• Smartphones and Tablets: Equipped with high-resolution cameras, GPS, and various sensors (gyroscope,
accelerometer), making them suitable for mobile mapping.

• GPS and GNSS: Use Global Positioning System (GPS) and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for
accurate location data, essential for mapping.

• Mobile GIS Apps: Various apps are available for data collection, mapping, and analysis:
Benefits of GIS Mobile mapping
• Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for expensive equipment and
dedicated GPS devices.
• Real-Time Data Collection: Enables immediate data upload and
synchronization with cloud-based GIS systems.
• User-Friendly: Intuitive interfaces make it easy for non-experts to
collect and manage spatial data.
• Portability: Lightweight and easy to carry, ideal for fieldwork in
remote areas.
Applications
• Environmental Monitoring: GIS mobile mapping is applied in
tracking changes in ecosystems, wildlife habitats, and pollution
levels.
• Urban Planning: Mobile mapping is employed in mapping
infrastructure, utilities, and land use to aid in planning and
development.
• Disaster Management: In rapid assessment and mapping of affected
areas during natural disasters, mobile GIS data is used in realtime
reporting of occurance of hazards.
• Agriculture: Mobile GIS data collection is applied in the precision
farming, crop monitoring, and land management. Workflow
• Infrastructure Management: The collection of realtime GIS data is
crucial in inspecting and maintaining road furniture, bridges and
other infrastructure.
Challenges and considerations
 Accuracy: While the smartphone GPS accuracy
has improved in recent times, it may still be
lower than dedicated GPS devices, especially in
areas with poor satellite visibility and reception.
 Battery Life: Intensive use of GPS and mobile
apps can drain the battery quickly, requiring
power backup solutions.
 Data Security: It is important to ensure the
security and privacy of the collected data,
especially when dealing with sensitive
information.
 Connectivity: In remote areas, lack of internet
connectivity can hinder real-time data upload and
synchronization.
What is Cloud GIS?
 GIS services and infrastructure hosted on cloud
platforms (e.g., AWS, Azure, Esri Cloud)
 Provides on-demand scalability, data storage, and
processing power
 Users can access GIS tools and data anywhere via
internet
Core Features:
 Cloud-hosted databases (e.g., ArcGIS Online, PostGIS
on AWS)
 Web services
 Integrated with big data, AI, and IoT platforms
 Enables collaboration across distributed teams
Use Cases:
 Disaster management dashboards with real-time
data
 Smart city platforms aggregating live sensor data
 Global climate modeling with cloud-based processing
 Public engagement platforms (crowdsourced
mapping)
GIS System Architecture and Components

Data Input

Geographic
Query Input
Database

Output: Display Transformation

and Reporting and Analysis
 Knowledge Base for GIS
Computer
Science/MIS
graphics
visualization
Application Area:
public admin.
database GIS planning
system administration
geology
security
mineral exploration
forestry
site selection
Geography marketing
and related: civil engineering
cartography criminal justice
geodesy surveying
photogrammetry
landforms The convergence of technological
spatial statistics. fields and traditional disciplines.
Data Model Concepts
• Vector data model and Raster data model can represent same phenomena
• E.g. Elevation represented as surface (continuous field) using raster grid or as lines
representing contours of equal elevation (discrete objects), or as points of height (Z
values).

• Data can be converted from one conceptual view to another

• E.g. raster data layer can be derived from contour lines, point cloud

• Selection of raster or vector model depends on the application or type of

operations to be performed
• E.g. Elevation represented as surface (continuous field) in raster - to easily
determine slope, or
• as discrete contours if printed maps of topography
The GIS Data Model: Implementation
Geographic Integration of Information
Administrative Boundaries
Utilities

Zoning
Buildings
Parcels
Hydrography
Streets
Digital Orthophoto

• Data is organized by layers, coverages or themes (synonomous

concepts), with each layer representing a common feature.
• Layers are integrated using explicit location on the earth’s
surface, thus geographic location is the organizing principal.
 The GIS Model: example
Here we have three layers or themes:
e
--roads,
tud

roads --hydrology (water),

lati

--topography (land elevation)

longitude They can be related because precise
geographic coordinates are recorded for each
e

theme.
tud

Layers are comprised of two data types

lati

hydrology •Spatial data which describes location (where)

•Attribute data specifing what, how much,when
longitude
Layers may be represented in two ways:
•in vector format as points and lines
topography •in raster(or image) format as pixels

longitude All geographic data has 4 properties:

projection, scale, accuracy and resolution
Concept of
Vector and Raster Real World

Raster Representation
Vector Representation
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 R T
1 R T
2 H R
point
3 R line
4 R R
5 R
6 R T T H
7 R T T polygon
8 R
9 R
How do we represent these digitally in a GIS?

By grouping into layers based on similar characteristics (e.g

hydrography, elevation, water lines, sewer lines, grocery sales)
and using either:
• vector data model
• raster data
Raster vs. Vector Data Model
• There are three basic types of vector objects: points, lines and polygons

• Vector data model uses sets of coordinates and associated attribute data to define
discrete objects

• Point objects in spatial database represent location of entities considered to have no

dimension. Simplest type of spatial objects
• E.g. wells, sampling points, poles, telephone towers, etc.

• Line objects are used to represent linear features using ordered set of coordinate pairs
• E.g. infrastructure networks (transport networks: highways, railroads, etc.) ; utility networks: (gas, electric,
telephone, water, etc. ); airline networks: hubs and routes, etc.); natural networks such as river channels
• Raster Data Model defines the world
as a regular set of cells in a uniform grid
pattern

• Cells are square and evenly spaced in

the x and y directions

• Each cell represent attribute values and

cell location of phenomena or entities

• Cell dimension specifies the length and

width of the cell in surface units

• Raster data models represent

continuous phenomena or spatial
features
• E.g. Elevation/DEM, bathymetry,
precipitation, slope, etc.

• Raster data model may also be used to

represent discrete data
• E.g. Land cover: forest, wetlands, urban
areas

• Rasters are digital aerial photographs,

imagery from satellites, digital pictures,
or even scanned maps
Attribute Tables
Non-spatial information associated
with a spatial feature is referred to
as an attribute. A feature on a GIS
map is linked to its record in the
attribute table by a unique
numerical identifier (ID). Every
feature in a layer has an identifier.
 Dumb Images
& Smart GIS Data

Smart Raster—5 feet grids

Images—dumb rasters
(although they look good!)
 Layers

Vector
Layers

Street Network layer: lines Land Parcels layer: polygons

Raster (image) Layer

Digital Ortho Photograph Layer:
Digital Ortho photo: combines the
visual properties of a photograph
with the positional accuracy of a
map, in computer readable form.
Projection: State Plane, North Central Texas Zone, NAD 83
Resolution: 0.5 meters
0 1500 3000 Feet Accuracy: 1.0 meters
Scale: see scale bar
Overlay based on Common Geographic Location
 Analysis
Data Table

Scanned Drawing
Photographic Image

Parcels within a half mile buffer of Park and Central

Data Sources
Primary Data Sources
A. Ground Surveying
•Traditional methods (e.g., theodolites).
•Advantages: high accuracy.
•Limitations: cost, time-consuming.

B. Remote Sensing
•Satellite imagery (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel).
•Aerial photography.
•UAV (drone) data collection.
•Spectral resolution, temporal frequency.

C. GPS/GNSS Data Collection

•Real-time data capture.
•Precision mapping and navigation.

D. Field Data Collection Apps

•Use of mobile devices and apps (e.g., Collector
for ArcGIS, QField).
•Crowdsourcing and participatory GIS.

E. Sensor Networks and IoT

•Real-time environmental monitoring (weather,
traffic, pollution sensors).
•Integration into GIS platforms.
Secondary Data Sources
A. Topographic Maps
•Sources: USGS, national mapping
agencies.
•Paper and digital forms.
B. Census and Statistical Data
•Population, health, economic data.
•Integration with spatial layers.
C. Existing GIS Databases
•Government portals (e.g.,
OpenStreetMap, Natural Earth,
National Spatial Data Infrastructure).
•Institutional repositories (e.g., NASA
Earthdata).
D. Web Services etc
•WMS, WFS, REST services.
•Real-time streaming services.
 Spatial
Operations
• Spatial operations use geometry functions to
take spatial data as input, analyze the data,
then produce output data that is the
derivative of the analysis performed on the
input data
• E.g. Buffer, clip, intersection, union,
dissolve, merge, etc.
Elements of visual Image
interpretation
1. Tone
2. Shape
3. Size
4. Pattern
5. Texture
6. Shadow
7. Associatio
n
1. Tone
Refers to the relative brightness of an image.
It is a fundamental factor in distinguishing
between different features.
2. Shape
Refers to the general structure or appearance
of an individual object. The shape becomes a
very distinctive clue for interpretation.
3. Size
Size is important for understanding an object in relation
to other objects in a scene. A quick estimate of the
target size will give us a better result.
3. Patter
Patter refers to thespatial arrangement
of visually identifiable objects. Systematic
repetition of textures produces a recognizable
pattern.
5.Texture
At rough textures, the tonal levels change abruptly in a small space, while soft
textures have very little tonal variation.
6. Shadow enlighten the relative height of the target. Shadow
can be used to enhance or identify topography and landforms,
especially in radar images
7. Association illuminates the target information, e.g .:
at the university, we can identify the admin block,
library, canteen, etc. ........
GIS Software Packages
 Software for GIS: The Main Players
• ESRI, Inc., Redlands, CA
– clear market leader with about a third of the market
– originated commercial GIS with their ArcInfo product in 1981 The main two
– privately owned by Jack Dangermond, a legend in the field “pure GIS”
– Strong in gov., education, utilities and business logistics companies.
• MapInfo, Troy N.Y.
– Aggressive newcomer in early 1990s, but now well-established.
– Strong presence in business, especially site selection & marketing, and telecom
• Intergraph (Huntsville, AL)
– origins in proprietary CAD hardware/software
– Older UNIX-based MGE (Modular GIS Environment) evolved from CAD
– Current GeoMedia was the first true MS Windows-based GIS
– strong in design, public works, and FM (facilities management), but weakening
• Bentley Systems (Exton, PA)
– MicroStation GeoGraphics, originally developed with Intergraph, is now their exclusive and
main product..
– Strong in engineering; advertises itself as “geoengineering”
• Autodesk (San Rafael, CA)
– Began as PC-based CAD, but now the dominant CAD supplier
– First GIS product AutoCAD Map introduced in 1996
– Primarily small business/small city customer base
Vector GIS Raster GIS
• ERDAS/Imagine
• Smallworld Systems
– long established leader
(Englewood, CO) – acquired by Leica Geosystems in 2001
– first to use OO (early ‘90s), • ER MAPPER
but failed to compete as – aggressive newcomer originating in Australia
established vendors did • Envi,
same – relative newcomer, radar specialization
– Purchased by GE in 2000 – acquired by Kodak in 2000
– emphasis on FM & utilities • PCI--Geomatica
– long-term Canadian player
• Manifold
• CARIS
(CDA International Corp): – newer Canadian entry
– low cost, but low market • GRASS (Rutgers Univ.)
share – Classic old-timer originally developed by US
• Maptitude Army Construction Engineering Research
Lab(CERL) in Champaign, IL;
(Caliper Corp, Newton, MA): – army ended dev. & support in 1996 but
– another low cost one assumed by Baylor University.
• IDRSI (Clark Univ)
– pioneering, university-developed package
 OPEN Source GIS

QGIS
https://qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html
Vector Layers
Attribute Tables

Raster
Layers

Anatomy of a GIS Database:

City of Plano
• Locating a Day-care
Hands-on Projects
– intro to GIS capabilities
– illustration of a major application: site selection
• Texas Demographic growth
– manipulation of data and mapping principles
– another major application: analysis of spatial patterns with polygon data
• Geocoding Housing Sales, or Analyzing Earthquake Locations
– techniques and data requirements for geocoding and point patterns
– another application: geocoding/address matching
• Creating a Census Tract layer, or a Geological Map
– editing and creating topologically consistent data
– how new data layers can be created
• Pipeline Routing
– data selection, buffering and spatial analysis
– another major application: corridor studies