CHEMICAL BONDING
Why are chemical bonds
formed ?
Chemical bonds form to lower the energy of the
system, the components of the system become
more stable through the formation of bonds.
Everything wants to be more stable - its easy to
lie down than stand up, bonding is Nature's way
of allowing the elements to lie down.
Definition of Chemical bonds.
A chemical bond is defined as a force that
acts between two or more atoms to hold
them together as a stable molecule. It is the
bonds between atoms that give molecules
different properties than the atoms they are
composed of.
Different Types of bonding
Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Co-ordination bonds
Metallic bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
Octet rule
Octet rule: The tendency for atoms to have eight
electrons in the outer shell is known as the octet
rule.
E.g. The electron configuration of each reactant in
the formation of KCl gives:
K+ is that of [Ar]
Cl is also that of [Ar].
The other electrons in the atom are not as
important in determining the reactivity of that
substance.
Covalent Bonding
Describing Covalent Bonds
Polar Covalent Bonds: Electronegativity
Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulae
Lewis Electron-Dot Formulae
The structural formulae of compounds built
by union of Lewis symbols for the
component atoms, are referred to as
Electron-dot formulas, Electron-dot
structures or Lewis structures.
Lewis Symbols
• A chemical symbol represents the nucleus
and the core e-.
• Dots around the symbol represent valence e-.
•
• Si •
•
•• •• •• •• ••
•N• • P• • As • • Sb • • Bi •
• • • • •
•• •• ••
• Al • • Se I • Ar
••
••
•
••
• • •• ••
Definition & condition of Covalent bond.
Covalent bond is defined as the attractive
force between atoms created by sharing of
an electron-pair.
Condition:1)Number of valence electron. 2)
Equal electro negativity. 3)equal sharing of
electrons.
Example of Covalent Bonding
• The bond arises from the mutual attraction of
2 nuclei for the same electrons.
HA + HB HA HB
A covalent bond is a balance
of attractive and repulsive forces.
6_H2bond.mov
Multiple Covalent Bonds
• • • • • •
O• • C• •O O C O
••
••
••
••
•• • •• •• ••
•
• • • •• ••
O C O O C O
••
••
•• •• • •• ••
Multiple Covalent Bonds
• • • •
N• •N N N
••
••
••
••
• • • •
•
N N N N
••
••
••
••
•
Definition Polar Covalent Bonds
• A covalent bond in which electrons are shared
unequally and the bonded atoms acquire a partial
positive and negative charge, is called polar covalent
bond.
• A molecule having partial positive and negative
charge separated by a distance is commonly referred
to as a Dipole (two pole).
• The greater the difference of electro negativity
between two atoms, greater the polarity.
Example Polar Covalent Bonds
δ+ δ-
H Cl
Electronegativity
Percent Ionic Character
Ionic bond
Definition: The electrostatic attraction between the
cation and anion produced by electron transfer
constitutes an Ionic or electrovalent bond.
Condition: 1) Number of valence electrons 2) Net
lowering of energy 3)Electronegativity difference
1)Number of electrons: One atom should contain 1,2 or 3 atoms
and another atom should contain 3,4 or 5 atoms
3) Electronegativity difference: Greater the difference of
electronegativity greater is the tendency of formation of ionic
bond
2) Net lowering of energy:
Factors governing the formation of ionic
bond
1) Ionization energy: Lower the ionization energy greater of
the tendency of the metal atom to change into cation and
hence greater will be the ease of formation of ionic bond.
2) Electron affinity: Higher the electron affinity more is the
energy released and stable will be the anion formed and
hence greater will be the ease of formation of ionic bond.
3) Lattice energy: Greater the lattice energy greater the
strength of ionic bond.
Definition of Lattice energy: The amount of energy released
When one atom of an ionic compound is formed from its
cations and anions.
Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds
• •• 2+ •• 2-
BaO Ba• • O• Ba O
••
••
•• ••
••
• Cl
••
• •• 2+ •• -
MgCl2 Mg • Mg 2 Cl
••
••
•• ••
• Cl ••
••
Coordination bond
Definition: It is defined as a covalent bond in
which both electrons of the shared pair come
from on of the two atoms.
The molecule or ion that contains the donor atoms
is called the ligand.
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
+
H H
•• -
H N H Cl H N H Cl
••
••
••
••
H H
Hydrogen Bond: The electrostatic attraction between an H atom
covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom X and a lone
pair of electrons on X in another molecule is called hydrogen bond.
The H-F bond is polar, with each atom bearing a small positive (δ+) or
negative (δ-) charge. When two hydrogen fluoride molecules come close
to each other, the like charges attract each other, and one gets a
"molecule" of di-hydrogen fluoride as shown:
The weak "bond" between the F atom and the H is called a
Hydrogen Bond, and is shown here as the dotted green
line.
Hydrogen bonding in water
Metallic bonding is the bonding within metals. It involves the
delocalized sharing of free electrons among a lattice of metal
atoms. Thus, metallic bonds may be compared to molten
salts.
Metal atoms typically contain a high number of electrons in
their valence shell compared to their period or energy level.
These become delocalized and form a Sea of Electrons
surrounding a giant lattice of positive ions
Van der Waals' forces are forces of attraction which exist between all
atoms and molecules. Van der Waals' forces are much weaker than all
other types of bonding.
They are only significant in atoms and molecules which have no other
types of intermolecular forces of attraction, for example, discrete non-
polar molecules and the Group 0 elements.
Van der Waals' forces are a result of electrostatic attraction between
temporary dipoles and induced dipoles caused by movement of electrons
in atoms and molecules.
VSEPR Theory
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
• This theory predicts that bonding and non-bonding
electron pairs in a molecule will adopt a geometry in
which the distance between the electron pairs is
maximized from one another in order to minimize the
repulsions.
• This will result in a molecular geometry with the
lowest possible energy
• The theory also allows us to predict which
hybridization the central atom takes in bonding to
other atoms.
VSEPR Theory
• we count how many pairs of electrons (triple bonds
are counted as one pair) are around the central atom
• If there are two pairs of electrons, they must be
positioned 180° apart from each other and the shape
is therefore linear.
• Three pairs are best positioned 120° apart and the
shape is thus trigonal planar
• Four pairs of electrons are best positioned as
tetrahedral shape.
Continue
• Depending upon the number of non-bonding electron
pairs, the shape of the molecule not counting non-
bonding electron pairs can be:
• a) tetrahedral (no non-bonding pairs);
• b) trigonal pyramidal (one non-bonding pair);
• c) "bent" or "V" (two non-bonding pairs).
• For five pairs of electrons, the shape is predicted to
be trigonal bipyramidal.
• Last, the octahedral is the shape predicted for six
pairs of electrons.
Molecular shape (VSEPR)
BeH2
• BF3
• CH4
Molecular shape (VSEPR)
NH3
H2O
PF5
Molecular shape (VSEPR)
• SF6
HYBRIDIZATION
Definition: The hybridization is defined as the
phenomenon of mixing up of orbitals of an atom of
nearly equal energy, giving up to entirely new orbitals
equal to the number to the mixing orbitals and having
same energy contents and identical shape
Continue
• Let's look at the electron
configuration of ground
state (lowest energy state)
carbon:
• By forming this excited
state, carbon will be able to
form four bonds. The excited
state configuration is shown
below:
SP3 Hybridizations
• Let's show this using the
atomic orbitals of excited
state carbon found in the
valence shell:
• The four sp3 hybrid orbitals will
arrange themselves in three
dimensional space to get as
far apart as possible (to
minimize repulsion). The
geometry that achieves this is
tetrahedral geometry, where
any bond angle is 109.5º
SP2 Hybridizations
• Let's show this using the atomic orbitals of excited state
carbon found in the valence shell:
• The three sp2 hybrid orbitals will
arrange themselves in three
dimensional space to get as far
apart as possible. The geometry
that achieves this is trigonal
planar geometry, where the bond
angle between the hybrid orbitals
is 120º. The unmixed pure p
orbital will be perpendicular to
this plane. Keep in mind, each
carbon atom is sp2 , and trigonal
planar.
SP Hybridizations
• Let's show this using the atomic orbitals of excited state
carbon found in the valence shell:
• The two sp hybrid orbitals
arrange themselves in three
dimensional space to get as far
apart as possible. The geometry
which achieves is linear geometry
with a bond angle of 180º. The
two pure p orbitals which were
not mixed are perpendicular to
each other.
