Crime
Analysis
Understanding Crime Analysis
Crime analysis is the process of examining crime data to identify patterns,
trends, and connections that can help law enforcement agencies
understand criminal activities. Over the past 20 years, various scholars
have provided definitions of crime analysis.
One definition describes crime analysis as a systematic process that
provides important and timely information about crime patterns and trends.
It is a practical tool for officers, helping them analyze patrol reports and
crime records. This information includes details about crime scenes,
weapons, vehicles used in crimes, and suspects. By comparing this data
with current cases, officers can identify patterns and trends that assist in
resource deployment, such as focusing patrols on specific areas. This helps
in identifying stolen property and tracking suspects (Emig, Heck, &
Kravitz, 1980).
The Role of Qualitative and Quantitative Data
in Crime Analysis
Crime analysis relies on both qualitative and quantitative data and methods to uncover
patterns, trends, and underlying factors behind criminal activities. These two
approaches help analysts gain a comprehensive understanding of crime and related issues.
1. Qualitative Data and Methods: Crime analysts use qualitative data when dealing
with non-numerical information to identify meanings and relationships. Specific
methods in crime analysis include:
Field Research: Observing characteristics of locations, such as the environment
or specific site conditions, to identify patterns in criminal activities.
Content Analysis: Examining police report narratives to detect recurring themes,
suspects, or locations.
These qualitative methods help crime analysts uncover deeper insights into incidents
that can't always be captured through numbers alone.
The Role of Qualitative and Quantitative Data
in Crime Analysis
Quantitative Data and Methods: When analysts use quantitative methods, they
focus on numerical data. This often involves:
Statistical Analysis: Analyzing data through methods such as frequencies,
percentages, means, and rates. These simple statistical tools allow crime analysts
to process large amounts of data to identify trends and correlations.
Although quantitative data plays a major role in crime analysis, qualitative methods are
equally important in providing context and understanding the "why" behind crime
patterns.
Crime analysis doesn't only involve examining crime incidents; it extends to
various police-related issues, such as staffing needs and identifying areas that
require more police attention.
Key Elements of Crime Analysis
Crime analysis involves examining various characteristics of crime and disorder to
assist law enforcement in achieving several goals, including criminal apprehension,
crime prevention, and evaluation of police efforts. The three primary types of
information that crime analysts use are sociodemographic, spatial, and temporal
data.
Sociodemographic Information
Sociodemographic information includes the personal characteristics of individuals or
groups, such as sex, race, income, age, and education. On an individual level, crime
analysts use this data to identify crime suspects. On a broader scale, sociodemographic
information helps analysts understand crime patterns within certain groups. For example,
analysts might examine if certain demographic traits—such as age or race—are linked to
a higher risk of being involved in criminal activity or being victimized.
Key Elements of Crime Analysis
Spatial Information
Spatial information refers to the geographic nature of crime. The development of
computer technology and the availability of electronic data have enabled crime analysts
to conduct spatial analysis more efficiently. Crime mapping is a significant tool in spatial
analysis, helping analysts visualize crime locations in relation to other events and
geographic features. By studying these patterns, analysts can better understand the areas
where crimes are more likely to occur and help police departments allocate
resources more effectively.
Temporal Information
Temporal analysis focuses on the timing of crimes. Analysts examine long-term trends
in crime, such as seasonal patterns or monthly variations, as well as more short-term
patterns like daily or hourly crime activity. By identifying when crimes occur, analysts
can help police departments make more informed decisions about patrol schedules and
crime prevention efforts.
The Crime Analysis Process:
The process of crime analysis is structured and involves several steps:
Data collection, Data collation, Analysis, Dissemination of results, and Incorporation of
feedback.
The first and crucial step in this process is data collection, which lays the foundation
for all subsequent analysis. Data collection begins with observations or raw data, which
are gathered from various sources outside the direct scope of the crime analysis team,
such as police officers, call-for-service dispatchers, community service officers,
census workers, and geographers.
1. Data Accuracy and Consistency:
It is critical that data is collected consistently and accurately. In most police agencies, data
is entered into a computer system by officers, data entry clerks, or police dispatchers.
The policies governing data entry, as well as the care taken during data entry, directly
impact the quality and quantity of data available for analysis. For instance, officers may
manually write reports, which are then entered into the system by data entry clerks, or they
may input reports directly into the system themselves.
Data Collection
Appropriate Data:
Not all data collected in police departments are useful for crime analysis. Analysts need
to focus on specific subsets of data that are relevant for understanding crime patterns. For
example, while officers may create detailed diagrams of car accidents for insurance
purposes, crime analysts are more concerned with basic data such as the date, time,
location, and type of accident. This helps analysts identify trends without getting bogged
down by unnecessary details.
Timeliness:
The timeliness of data is essential for effective analysis. Data collected months after the
fact is of little use in crime analysis. For example, if electronic crime data isn’t available
until six months after the reports are written, it loses its relevance. The data must be
updated regularly, preferably daily or weekly, and should be readily available to be used
in analysis.
Data Collection
Data Storage:
Data storage is another critical factor in the crime analysis process. For the data to be useful,
it must be stored electronically, not in paper format. Paper-based data is too cumbersome
and time-consuming to analyze. Electronic databases make data more accessible and
easier to query. The data must also be stored long enough—usually for several years—so
that analysts have enough data to identify patterns and trends.
Data Access and Software Integration:
Crime analysts require direct access to raw data. Many police systems only allow analysts to
retrieve individual records or generate statistical reports, but for effective analysis, crime
analysts need the ability to download the data into software programs that support in-depth
analysis. This access allows for the use of various techniques and methods discussed in
crime analysis, such as statistical or spatial analysis.
Collation in the Crime Analysis Process
After data collection, the next step in the crime analysis process is data collation, which
involves preparing the collected data for analysis. While the general police data collection
systems are designed to capture and store data, they are often not optimized for
immediate analysis. As a result, crime analysts often need to transform the data in specific
ways before it can be effectively used for analysis. This step involves various tasks, which
generally include the following:
1. Cleaning:
Cleaning is the process of identifying and correcting mistakes or inconsistencies in the
collected data. This could involve fixing errors in the data entry, resolving duplicate
entries, or addressing missing data. Ensuring that the data is accurate and consistent is
crucial because any errors can affect the validity of the analysis and lead to inaccurate
conclusions.
Collation in the Crime Analysis Process
2. Geocoding:
Geocoding refers to the process of associating crime data with geographic
information, allowing analysts to analyze the data spatially. This is important because crime
patterns are often geographically dependent. By mapping crime incidents to specific
locations, crime analysts can identify areas with higher crime rates and assist in allocating
police resources effectively.
3. Creation of New Variables:
Creation of new variables involves recoding or computing new data points from existing
variables to facilitate better analysis. For example, analysts might create new variables to
measure the response time for police to respond to an emergency call or to
categorize crimes based on severity (e.g., violent versus non-violent crimes). These new
variables help in organizing the data in ways that provide deeper insights and make the
analysis more effective.
Analysis in the Crime Analysis Process
Once data has been collected and prepared, analysis is the next critical step in the crime
analysis process. It involves applying various statistical and visualization techniques to
uncover patterns, trends, and insights that can aid law enforcement in decision-making.
However, the analysis process is not always straightforward, and it is common for analysts to
uncover problems with the data only after they begin their analysis. When such issues arise,
analysts often need to revisit earlier stages, such as data collection and collation, to
improve or adjust the data for more effective analysis.
The Data Modification Subcycle
The crime analysis process is not a linear progression. After data collection and collation,
analysis can lead to insights that inform and improve previous steps. This ongoing cycle is
known as the data modification subcycle, and it is an essential part of the crime analysis
process. When problems are identified during analysis, crime analysts must return to the
data collection or collation steps to make necessary adjustments. This iterative process
ensures that data is continuously refined and improved throughout the analysis.
Examples of the Data Modification Subcycle:
Inconsistent Call-for-Service Data:
If an analyst is studying loud parties in a particular area and discovers that the call-for-
service data only contains a general "loud noise" call type, the analyst cannot distinguish
between different types of loud noise. In this case, the analyst must go back to the data
collection process and create a new call type, such as "loud party," for officers and
dispatchers to use. This change in the data collection system makes future analyses more
accurate and relevant.
Insufficient Data Storage:
A chief of police might request a crime analysis covering the past 10 years, but if the data is
only stored for 5 years, the analyst would only be able to examine the available 5 years
of data. In response, the analyst may recommend a change in data storage policies,
ensuring that future data is preserved for 10 years, thus allowing for more comprehensive
analysis in the future.
Examples of the Data Modification Subcycle:
Inaccurate Crime Location Data:
During analysis, an analyst might notice inconsistencies in the crime location data—such as
addresses being assigned to the wrong police beats. This would prompt the analyst to revisit
the cleaning and collation process, leading to the development of a more detailed and
effective data cleaning procedure to prevent similar issues in the future.
The data modification subcycle highlights the dynamic nature of crime analysis. Analysts
cannot simply accept the data at face value, as unforeseen complications often arise. New
aspects of crime or disorder might not have been collected initially, and new variables may
need to be added to existing data sets. This iterative process ensures that crime analysis
evolves over time, continuously improving the quality of insights and decisions.
By spending time addressing issues that arise during analysis, crime analysts contribute
significantly to the overall effectiveness of the law enforcement process, ensuring that
policies and resources are aligned with the actual needs of the community.
Dissemination of Crime Analysis Results
Once crime data has been analyzed, the next critical step is dissemination, which involves
communicating the results to various audiences. The dissemination of crime analysis results
plays an essential role in ensuring that the insights gained through analysis are effectively
communicated to the right people who can take action based on the findings. Crime analysts
use various methods to share their results, including paper reports, maps, presentations,
emails, internet documents, and phone calls.
When disseminating crime analysis results, analysts must keep two important considerations
in mind:
Tailoring the Presentation to the Audience:
The way the results are presented should be adapted to the knowledge level of the audience.
For example, when presenting findings to citizens, analysts might need to explain
basic crime definitions (e.g., the difference between robbery and burglary) to ensure the
audience fully understands the context of the findings. On the other hand, when presenting
to police officers or police management, analysts can use more technical language and
assume a higher level of understanding of crime-related concepts.
Dissemination of Crime Analysis Results
2. Conveying Only the Most Necessary Information:
Crime analysis involves extensive work behind the scenes, such as data collection, cleaning,
and collation. However, not all this work needs to be shared with the audience. The
presentation should focus only on the most relevant and significant findings that address the
specific issue at hand. For instance, if the analysis reveals a key trend in burglary rates, it is
more effective to highlight that trend and its implications, rather than presenting every detail of
the data analysis process.
Broader Impact of Dissemination
Disseminating crime analysis results is not only beneficial for police departments but also
contributes to the broader understanding of crime and law enforcement practices. Analysts can
share their findings with other analysts, researchers, and police practitioners, which can help:
Improve police practices, such as enhancing enforcement or crime prevention efforts. Inform
future crime analysis practices by sharing successful methods of data collection or analytic
techniques. Contribute to the general body of knowledge about crime and police-related issues.
For example, findings on the nature of prostitution in rural areas or patterns of gang activity
can add valuable insights to the field.
Feedback in the Crime Analysis Process
After the dissemination of crime analysis results, feedback plays a crucial role in improving the
overall analysis process. Just as the data modification subcycle helps refine data collection,
collation, and analysis, feedback from those who use the analysis products can provide
valuable insights that guide future work.
The Role of Feedback
Improving Analysis Quality:
Feedback allows analysts to assess how well their analyses or reports meet the needs of their
audience. For example, if police officers or management find certain aspects of the analysis
unclear or less relevant, analysts can refine their methods and presentations for future reports.
Assessing Data and Methods:
Feedback can also address the quality of the data that was analyzed. Analysts may receive
input on whether the data used for analysis was complete, accurate, or relevant. This feedback
can lead to improvements in the data collection and collation stages, ensuring that future
analyses are based on more reliable and comprehensive data.
Feedback in the Crime Analysis Process
Enhancing Usefulness for Decision-Making:
One of the most important aspects of feedback is how useful the analysis was for decision-
making. Analysts receive feedback on whether their findings led to actionable insights, such as
successful crime prevention strategies or more efficient resource allocation. Understanding the
practical impact of their analysis helps analysts adjust their approach to provide even more
relevant information for future decision-making.
The Continuous Improvement Cycle
Similar to the iterative nature of the data modification subcycle, feedback is an ongoing
process that informs each step of crime analysis. By integrating feedback into their work,
analysts can improve the quality, relevance, and impact of their analyses. This continuous
improvement cycle helps ensure that crime analysis remains a valuable tool for law
enforcement and contributes effectively to crime prevention and resolution.
Types of Crime Analysis
Crime analysis, a broad term referring to both a concept and a discipline within law
enforcement, is broken down into several subsets based on their purpose, scope, data, and
analytical methods. These subsets can range from detailed, investigation-focused types of
analysis to broader, research-oriented ones. Below is an overview of one specific subset of
crime analysis:
Intelligence Analysis
The primary goal of intelligence analysis is to identify networks of offenders and criminal
activities, aiding the police in apprehending law violators. This type of analysis focuses on
understanding and breaking down criminal networks such as organized crime groups (e.g., the
Mafia), gangs, drug trafficking operations, prostitution rings, and financial fraud organizations
(Petersen, 1994).
Intelligence analysis is typically conducted within the jurisdiction of a specific police
department, such as at the city, county, or state level. However, police departments often
collaborate with neighboring jurisdictions and national officials when criminal activities extend
beyond their borders.
Intelligence Analysis
Data and Methods:
The data used in intelligence analysis is gathered through various methods, including:
● Surveillance: Monitoring suspects and criminal activities in real-time.
● Wiretapping: Listening to phone conversations as part of investigations.
● Informants: Gathering inside information from individuals within criminal organizations.
● Participant Observation (Undercover Work): Police officers working undercover to infiltrate criminal
organizations and gather firsthand data.
Intelligence Analysis
The type of information analyzed in intelligence analysis is broad and can go beyond criminal records. It often
includes:
● Telephone conversations
● Travel information
● Financial and tax records
● Relationships within families and businesses of the individuals under investigation
Intelligence Analysis
Analysis Techniques:
Intelligence analysts work to link pieces of information together, prioritize what is most relevant, identify
relationships within the data, and highlight areas requiring further investigation. They often focus on developing
a clearer understanding of criminal networks and operations. These analysts play an essential role in shaping
law enforcement strategies to tackle organized crime.
Collaboration:
Intelligence analysts often work closely with police officers, and in many cases, intelligence analysts are
officers themselves. This close collaboration helps ensure that intelligence findings directly inform operational
strategies and decisions.
In summary, intelligence analysis is a crucial subset of crime analysis focused on uncovering and
understanding criminal networks, supporting the apprehension of offenders, and informing strategic law
enforcement actions.
Criminal Investigative Analysis
In the 1970s and 1980s, what is now referred to as criminal investigative analysis was
commonly known as criminal profiling. However, due to the frequent misuse of the term
"profiling" in popular media, practitioners decided to shift the terminology to criminal
investigative analysis. This type of analysis involves constructing "profiles" of offenders
who have committed serious crimes. Analysts use the details of the crimes—such as the
nature of the crime scene, the method of operation, and the level of violence—to infer
certain characteristics about the offenders. For example, a crime scene that is
particularly bloody and chaotic suggests a different type of offender compared to one
who has meticulously cleaned up the scene. Through these inferences, analysts aim to
identify personal traits of the offender, such as their personality, social habits, and work
habits.
Criminal Investigative Analysis
The primary goal of criminal investigative analysis is to assist criminal investigators
in identifying and prioritizing suspects by providing a psychological and
behavioral profile based on the crime scene and other evidence. This type of analysis
is typically conducted at the national level because the patterns of serious crimes often
span across different jurisdictions. A subset of criminal investigative analysis is
geographic profiling, which focuses on analyzing the geographic locations of an offender’s
crimes, such as the places where victims are found or where encounters take place. By
studying these patterns, geographic profiling helps analysts predict where the offender
may reside, thereby narrowing down the search area for law enforcement officers.
While intelligence analysis and criminal investigative analysis both fall under the broader
category of crime analysis, their techniques, products, and objectives differ significantly
from one another. In practice, these two types of analysis are often considered distinct
disciplines. Therefore, although intelligence and criminal investigative analysis are
mentioned for background purposes, the focus of this discussion shifts to other forms of
crime analysis, namely tactical, strategic, and administrative crime analysis.
Tactical Crime Analysis
Tactical Crime Analysis (TCA) is defined as the study of recent criminal incidents and
potential criminal activity by examining key characteristics such as how, when, and where the
activity occurred. This analysis is conducted to assist in the development of crime patterns,
identifying investigative leads, suspect identification, and case clearance (adapted from Boba,
2001). TCA focuses on crimes that have recently occurred and gathers specific details about
the methods used in the crimes, as well as information about the individuals and vehicles
involved.
The data analyzed in TCA typically comes from formal police reports, which provide details
about various aspects of the crime. These aspects include the method of entry, the point of
entry, the suspect’s actions, the type of victim, the type of weapon used, as well as the date,
time, location, and the type of location. Common crimes examined in TCA include
commercial and residential burglaries, robberies, and sexual crimes (such as rape, public
sexual indecency, and indecent exposure). TCA also involves the analysis of field information
gathered by patrol officers about potential criminal activity, such as suspicious activity calls,
criminal trespass warnings, and details on scars, tattoos, or other marks observed during officer
contacts in the field.
Tactical Crime Analysis
TCA serves three main goals:
1. Linking crimes to identify patterns of criminal activity.
2. Identifying potential suspects associated with these crime patterns.
3. Linking solved crimes to open cases, which can assist in clearing or closing those cases.
One of the key challenges faced by detectives and police officers is that they often focus on individual cases and may
not have the time to step back and examine a broader view. Tactical crime analysis addresses this gap by analyzing
multiple crimes together. By identifying patterns and linking them to potential offenders, TCA assists investigators in
seeing the bigger picture, which can ultimately lead to more efficient and successful investigations.
Strategic Crime Analysis
Strategic Crime Analysis (SCA) is defined as the study of crime problems and other police-related issues to identify
long-term patterns of criminal activity and to evaluate police responses and organizational procedures (adapted from
Boba, 2001). Unlike tactical crime analysis, which focuses on recent incidents, SCA involves a broader, long-term
perspective. The data and methods used in SCA are primarily quantitative, although qualitative data may also be
incorporated in more in-depth analyses. Strategic crime analysts rely on statistical methods to examine large
electronic databases containing hundreds or even thousands of records, focusing on variables such as date, time,
location, and the type of incident rather than narrative descriptions of specific crimes.
The two main purposes of strategic crime analysis are:
1. To assist in identifying and examining long-term crime problems, including trends such as rising crime
rates, repeat victimization, and crime hotspots.
2. To evaluate police responses to these problems and the organizational procedures of police agencies, such
as deployment strategies, staffing, or redistricting of police beats or precincts.
Administrative Crime Analysis
Administrative Crime Analysis (ACA) is defined as the presentation of key findings from crime research and analysis,
tailored to address legal, political, and practical concerns, with the goal of informing various audiences within
police administration, city government, and the general public (adapted from Boba, 2001). Unlike tactical and
strategic crime analysis, which focus on pattern identification, statistical analysis, and long-term trends, ACA is
primarily concerned with the communication and presentation of findings that have already been identified through
other forms of analysis.
The key difference with ACA is that it involves selecting and formatting relevant findings from existing research and
analyses for specific audiences. Often, the information presented in ACA represents just the "tip of the iceberg" of the
broader analysis. The findings are typically simplified to make them digestible for the intended audience, which could
include police administrators, city officials, community members, and the news media. Additionally, when presenting
these findings, crime analysts must take into account legal (e.g., privacy and confidentiality issues), political (e.g.,
union concerns, election-related issues), and practical (e.g., the complexity or length of the information) factors.
Administrative Crime Analysis
The primary goal of ACA is to inform audiences. Since the target audiences can vary greatly depending on the
situation, the type and amount of information presented are tailored accordingly. For example, while tactical and
strategic crime analysis primarily serves line officers and supervisors, ACA is generally aimed at administrators,
command staff, city government officials, news media, and citizens. A common example of ACA in practice is the
dissemination of crime data via a police internet site, which serves a wide variety of stakeholders, including citizens,
business owners, victims, criminals, and the media. The format and content of the information shared on such a
platform are specifically chosen and formatted to meet the needs of this diverse audience.
In essence, ACA is about taking the results of detailed crime research and presenting them in a clear, accessible
format for decision-makers and the general public, ensuring that critical information is communicated effectively while
considering the context and sensitivities involved.
