21ECC302T – Analog and

Digital
Communication
Course Credit :
3 Theory : 9
Hours

1. Singh. R. P & Sapre. S. D,“Communication Systems: Analog &

Digital,” 3rd edition, McGrawHill Education, Seventh Reprint, 2016.

2.Simon Haykin,“Communication Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 4th Edition,

2008
Course Outline
1. Analog
Modulation

5. Information 2. Radio
theory Concepts Transmitters and
Receiver
s
ADC

4. Passband Data 3. Digital Modulation

Transmission System and Baseband
Detection
Unit 3 – Baseband and Digital Modulation
Techniques
• Baseband Modulation Techniques (PAM, PWM and PPM)
• Digital Modulation Techniques - Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
System)
• Differential PCM (DPCM) System
• Delta Modulation (DM) System
• Matched Filter Receiver
• Probability of error for Matched filter
• Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) and Eye pattern
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Most basic form of digital pulse modulation
 In PCM, a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulse, which is accomplished by
representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude
 Basic operation of transmitter- Sampling, Quantizing, Encoding
 Basic operation of receiver- Regeneration, decoding and reconstruction
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Sampling
• Incoming message signal is sampled with a train of narrow rectangular pulses so as to
closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process
• Sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency component W of
message signal for perfect reconstruction at receiver
• Low pass anti-aliasing filter is used at the front end of the sampler to exclude
frequencies greater than W before sampling
• Sampling reduces the continuously varying message signal to a limited number of
discrete values per second

 Quantization
• Non uniform quantization with µ-law and A-law

 Encoding
• Encoding translates the discrete set of sample values to more appropriate form of signal
• Code any plan for representing each of discrete value as a particular arrangement of
discrete events. One of discrete event in a code is called code element or symbol
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Sampling
• Incoming message signal is sampled with a train of narrow rectangular pulses so as to
closely approximate the instantaneous sampling process
• Sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency component W of
message signal for perfect reconstruction at receiver
• Low pass anti-aliasing filter is used at the front end of the sampler to exclude
frequencies greater than W before sampling
• Sampling reduces the continuously varying message signal to a limited number of
discrete values per second

 Quantization
• Non uniform quantization with µ-law and A-law

 Encoding
• Encoding translates the discrete set of sample values to more appropriate form of signal
• Code any plan for representing each of discrete value as a particular arrangement of
discrete events. One of discrete event in a code is called code element or symbol
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Encoding
• Example, presence or absence of a pulse is a
symbol
• Particular arrangement of symbols used in a
code to represent a single value of discrete set
is called a code word or character
• Binary code- each symbol may be either of 2
distinct values
• Ternary code- each symbol may be one of 3
distinct values
• Maximum advantage over the effects of noise
in a transmission medium is obtained by using
a binary code, because a binary symbol
withstands a relatively high level of noise and
is easy to regenerate
• Explanation of Line codes (Unipolar NRZ,
polar NRZ, Unipolar RZ, Bipolar RZ,
Manchester coding)
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Regeneration
• Important feature of PCM lies in the ability to control the effects of distortion and noise
produced by transmitting a PCM signal through a channel
• This is accomplished by reconstructing the PCM by means of a chain of regenerative
repeaters located at sufficiently close spacing along the transmission route
• Functions of regenerative repeater- Equalization, timing, Decision Making
• Equalizer- Shapes the received pulses to compensate for the effects of amplitude and
phase distortion produced by nonideal transmission characteristics of the channel
• Timing Circuitry- Provides periodic pulse train for sampling the equalized pulses at the
instants of time where the SNR is maximum
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Decision Making
• Each sample extracted is compared to a predetermined threshold in the decision making
device
• Decision is made whether the received symbol is 1 or 0 based on the exceeding of
threshold
• Threshold exceeded symbol 1
• Threshold not exceeded symbol 0
• Accumulation of distortion and noise in a repeater span is completely removed
• Ideally, regenerated signal is exactly same as the signal transmitted except for the delay
• Practically, regenerated signal deviates from original because of
 Unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference cause the repeater to make
wrong decision, introducing bit errors
 Spacing between receive pulses deviates from assigned value, introducing a jitter
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Decoding
• Regeneration reshapes and cleans up the received pulse
• Clean pulses are grouped into code words and decoded in to quantized PAM signal
• Decoding involves generating a pulse, amplitude of which is linear sum of all pulses in
the code word, with each pulse being weighted by its place value in the code

 Filtering
• Recover the message signal by passing the decoder output through a low pass
reconstruction filter with cutoff frequency equal to message bandwidth
 Noises in PCM
Two major sources of noise
 Channel Noise
• Introduced anywhere between the transmitter output and receiver input. Present when
the equipment is switched on.
• Introduce bit errors in received signal. Read 1 as 0 or 0 as 1
• Fidelity of PCM measured using Probability of symbol error- average probability that
the reconstructed symbol at the receiver output differs from the transmitted binary
symbol (Bit Error Rate (BER))
• BER assumes that all bits are of equal importance but error in MSB is more significant
than error in LSB

 Quantization Noise
• Introduced in transmitter and carried to receiver. It is signal dependent and disappears
when message signal is switched off
• Under designers' control
• Can be made small by using adequate no.of representation levels and selecting proper
companding technique
Advantages of PCM
 Disadvantages of PCM
 Overload appears when modulating signal changes between samplings, by an amount
greater than the size of the step.
 Large bandwidth is required for transmission.
 Noise and crosstalk leaves low but rises attenuation.
 An IDN (Integrated Digital Network) can only be realized by gradual extension of noise.
 The difference between original analog signal and translated digital signal is called
quantizing error.

 Requires synchronization between receiver and transmitter.

Bandwidth of PCM
 Differential PCM (DPCM)
 When a voice or video signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than Nyquist rate, the
resulting sampled signal exhibits high degree of correlation between adjacent samples
 Means signal does not change rapidly from one sample to next
 Difference between the adjacent samples has variance smaller than the variance of the signal
itself
 Encoding of highly correlated samples results in redundant information
 DPCM is a technique in which the difference between the samples, rather than the sample
values themselves, is encoded in binary.
 The reason for employing DPCM is that speech samples do not change drastically from
sample to sample and therefore the difference values can be encoded using fewer bits.
Differential PCM
 Differential PCM
 Suppose a baseband signal m(t) is sampled at the rate =1/ to produce the sequence {m(nT)}
where samples are seconds apart.
 The input signal to the quantizer is defined as,
------------- (1)

where m[n]- input sample (unquantized)

- predicted sample
 The predicted value is produced by using a linear prediction filter whose input is quantized
version of the input sample m[n].
 The difference signal is the prediction error e[n].It is the amount by which the prediction
filter fails to predict the input exactly. Quantizer output is given as
----------- (2)

where q[n] – quantization error

 Differential PCM
 The quantizer output is added to the predicted value to produce the prediction
filter output.
-------------- (3)
substituting equation (2) into (3) , we get

The sum of is equal to input sample m[n]. Therefore we may simplify the
above equation as

- represents quantized version of the input sample m[n]. ie, irrespective of

the properties of the prediction filter the quantized
 Differential PCM
 sample at the prediction filter output differs from the original sample m[n] by the
quantizer error q[n].
 The receiver consists of a decoder to reconstruct the quantized error signal.
 The quantized version of original input is reconstructed from the decoder output using the
same prediction filter used in transmitter.
 In the absence of channel noise, the encoded signal at the receiver input is identical to the
encoded signal at the transmitter output.
 Accordingly, the corresponding receiver output is equal to , which differs from the
original input m[n] only by q[n].
 The feedback path added to the quantizer in the transmitter results in the prediction filter in
the transmitter and receiver operate in the same sequence of samples in a noise-free
environment .
 Processing Gain of DPCM
The output signal to noise ratio of the DPCM signal is given by,
----- (4)
We may rewrite the equation (4) as the product of two factor
 Delta Modulation (DM)
• The delta modulation is a special case of DPCM.
• DM is 1-bit version of DPCM.
• In DM, an incoming message signal is oversampled to increase the correlation between
adjacent samples of the signal.
• It provides the staircase approximation to the oversampled version of the message signal.
• The difference between the input and the approximation is quantized into only two levels ,
corresponding to positive and negative differences.
• If the approximation falls below the signal at any sampling epoch, it is increased by
• If the approximation lies above the signal ,it is decreased by
• If there is no rapid change from sample to sample, then the stair-case approximation remains
within of the input signal.
• The staircase approximation mq(t) follows variations in the input signal m(t).
Delta Modulation (DM)

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Delta Modulation (DM)

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 Delta Modulation (DM)
• Let m(t) – input message signal ,( – its staircase approximation
m[n] –sequence of samples
m[n] - sample of m[t] taken at time t=n , where is sampling period.
we have,

where
e[n] – error signal representing the difference between the present sample m[n]
of the input signal and the latest approximation [n-1]
– quantized version of e(n)
sgn(.) –signum function
The quantizer output is coded to produce the DM signal. 24
 Delta Modulation (DM)
• The rate of information transmission is equal to the sampling rate =1/ .
• The delta modulated wave is generated by applying the sampled version of the incoming
message signal to a modulator that involves a comparator , quantizer and accumulator.
• z-1 is unit delay.
• The comparator computes the difference between its two inputs . The quantizer consists of hard
limiter with an input-output relation that is scaled version of the signum function . Then the
quantizer output is applied to the accumulator, producing the result,

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 Delta Modulation (DM)
Thus, at the sampling instant n , the accumulator increments the approximation by a step
in a positive or negative direction, depending on the sign of the error signal e[n].
If the input sample m[n] is greater than the most recent approximation [n] , a positive
increment + is applied to the approximation.
If the input sample is smaller, a negative increment - is applied to the approximation.
In the receiver, the staircase approximation (t) is reconstructed by passing the sequence of
positive and negative pulses, produced at the decoder output, through an accumulator. The
quantization noise in staircase waveform (t) is rejected by passing it through a LPF.

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 Noise in DM
Delta modulation subject to two types of quantization
error.
a. Slope overload distortion b. Granular noise

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 Noise in DM
The quantization error q[n] is
The input to the quantizer is ,

Thus except for the quantization error q[n-1], the quantizer input is a first backward
difference of the input signal.
If we consider the maximum slope of the original input waveform m(t), it is clear that in
order for the sequence of samples m[n] in a region of maximum slope of m(t),
we require that the condition be satisfied.

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 Noise in DM
Slope-overload distortion : It occurs when the step size is too small for the staircase
approximation (t) to follow a steep segment of the input waveform m(t), with the result
that (t) falls behind m(t). This condition is called slope overload and the resulting
quantization error is called slope-overload distortion(noise).
Since the maximum slope of the staircase approximation (t) is fixed by the step size ,
increases and decreases in (t) tend to occur along the straight lines. For this reason, a delta
modulator using a fixed step size is often referred to as a linear delta modulator.
Granular noise: It occurs when the step size is too large relative to the slope
characteristics of the input waveform m(t), thereby causing the staircase approximation (t)
to hunt around a relatively flat segment of the input waveform . It is analogous to
quantization noise in a PCM system.

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