Reference Models
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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model
Complex concepts such as how a
network operates can be difficult to
explain and understand. For this
reason, a layered model is used.
Two layered models describe network
operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model
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Copper Cabling
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Copper Cabling
Types of Copper Cabling
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Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP is the most common networking
media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices.
Key Characteristics of UTP
1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage.
2. Twisted pairs protect the signal from
interference.
3. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair.
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Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) • Better noise protection than UTP
• More expensive than UTP
• Harder to install than UTP
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices
Key Characteristics of STP
1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage
2. Braided or foil shield provides
EMI/RFI protection
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires
provides EMI/RFI protection
4. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair
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Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical
damage
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the
inner conductor.
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
4. A copper conductor is used to transmit the
electronic signals.
There are different types of connectors used with coax
cable.
Commonly used in the following situations:
• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless
devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises
wiring
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UTP Cabling
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UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling
UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper wires
twisted together and encased in a flexible plastic
sheath. No shielding is used. UTP relies on the
following properties to limit crosstalk:
• Cancellation - Each wire in a pair of wires uses
opposite polarity. One wire is negative, the other
wire is positive. They are twisted together and the
magnetic fields effectively cancel each other and
outside EMI/RFI.
• Variation in twists per foot in each wire - Each wire
is twisted a different amount, which helps prevent
crosstalk amongst the wires in the cable.
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UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors
Standards for UTP are established by the TIA/EIA. TIA/EIA-
568 standardizes elements like:
• Cable Types
• Cable Lengths
• Connectors
• Cable Termination
• Testing Methods
Electrical standards for copper cabling are established by the
IEEE, which rates cable according to its performance.
Examples include:
• Category 3
• Category 5 and 5e
• Category 6
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UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors (Cont.)
RJ-45 Connector Poorly terminated UTP cable
Properly terminated UTP cable
RJ-45 Socket
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UTP Cabling
Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables
Cable Type Standard Application
Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or T568B Host to Network Device
Ethernet Crossover * One end T568A, other end Host-to-Host, Switch-to-Switch,
T568B Router-to-Router
* Considered Legacy due to most NICs using Auto-MDIX to sense cable type and complete connection
Rollover Cisco Proprietary Host serial port to Router or Switch
Console Port, using an adapter
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media
Single-Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber
• Larger core
• Very small core
• Uses less expensive LEDs
• Uses expensive lasers
• LEDs transmit at different angles
• Long-distance applications
• Up to 10 Gbps over 550 meters
Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF, with a the maximum cable
distance for MMF is 550 meters.
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting
infrastructure devices
2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to homes
and small businesses
3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
4. Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity
solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic
distances.
Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within the enterprise.
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Connectors
Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors
Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors
Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors Duplex Multimode LC Connectors
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber Patch Cords
SC-SC MM Patch Cord LC-LC SM Patch Cord ST-LC MM Patch Cord ST-SC SM Patch Cord
A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber
cables.
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Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.
Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling
Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s
Distance Relatively short (1 - 100 meters) Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000 meters)
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)
Immunity to electrical hazards Low High (Completely immune)
Media and connector costs Lowest Highest
Installation skills required Lowest Highest
Safety precautions Lowest Highest
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Wireless Media
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Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data communications
cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer
specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction
Wireless Standards:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband wireless
access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications, primarily
for Internet of Things (IoT) applications
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Wireless Media
Wireless LAN
In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals from users and
connect to the existing copper-based network infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications capability to
network hosts
There are a number of WLAN standards. When purchasing WLAN equipment,
ensure compatibility, and interoperability.
Network Administrators must develop and apply stringent security policies and
processes to protect WLANs from unauthorized access and damage.
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