Environment and health
2 part
nd
COMMUNITY DENTISTRY
5TH SEMESTER
2. Filtration
Two types of filters are used, the ‘biological’ or ‘slow sand’ filters and
the ‘rapid sand’ or ‘mechanical’ filters.
A. Slow sand or biological filters;
Elements of slow sand filters consists of:
1. Supernatant water
The process in which solid particles in a
2. A bed of graded sand
liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by
3. An under drainage system the use of a filter medium that permits
the fluid to pass through but retains the
4. A system of filter control valves
solid particles.
Supernatant water
The supernatant water above the sand bed serves two important
purposes;
1. It provides a constant head of water.
Sedimentation is
a physical water
2. It provides waiting period of some hours for the raw water to undergo
treatment
partial purification by sedimentation, oxidation and particle process using
agglomeration. gravity to
remove
suspended
solids from
water.
Sand bed
The most important part of the filter is the sand bed. The sand should
be clean and free from clay and organic matter. The sand bed
presents a vast surface area.
The water is subjected to mechanical straining, sedimentation,
adsorption, oxidation and bacterial action.
Adsorption particles are stick
to the surface.
Vital layer:
When the filter is laid newly, it acts merely as a mechanical
strainer, and cannot truly be considered as “biological”.
But very soon the surface of the sand bed gets covered with a slimy
growth known as “schmutzdecke”, vital layer, zoogleal layer or
biological layer. This layer is slimy and gelatinous and consists of
threadlike algae and plankton, diatoms and bacteria.
The formation of vital layer is known as “ripening” of filter. It
may take several days for the vital layer to form.
It extends 2 to 3 cm into the top portion of the sand bed. It is the
“heart” of the slow sand filter. It removes organic matter,
holds back bacteria and
oxidizes ammonical nitrogen
into nitrates and helps in
Under drainage system
At the bottom of the filter bed is the under drainage system.
It consists of porous or perforated pipes which serve the dual
purpose of providing an outlet for filtered water, and supporting
the filter medium above.
Filter box
The first three elements are contained in the filter box.
The filter box is an open box, usually rectangular in shape, from 2.5 to 4
meters deep and is built wholly or partly below ground.
The walls may be made of stone, brick or cement.
The filter box consists from top to bottom:
Supernatant water 1 to1.5 meters
Sand bed 1.2 meters
Gravel support 0.30 meters
Filter bottom 0.16 meters
Filter control valves
The purpose of these devices is to maintain a steady rate of filtration. The
advantages of slow sand filter are:
1. Simple to construct and operate.
2. The cost of construction is cheaper than that of rapid sand filters.
3. The physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of filtered water is high.
4. They reduce total bacterial counts by 99.9 to 99.99%.
B. Rapid sand or mechanical
filters;
Rapid sand filters are of two types,
1. Gravity type 2. Pressure type
The following steps are involved in the purification of water by rapid
sand filters:
1. Coagulation:
The raw water is first treated with chemical coagulant such as alum,
the dose of which varies from 5–40 milligrams or more per liter,
depending upon the turbidity and color, temperature and pH of
water.
2. Rapid mixing
The treated water is then subjected to violent agitation in a “mixing
chamber” for a few minutes.
3. Flocculation
The next phase involves slow and gentle stirring of treated water
for 30 minutes in a “flocculation chamber”.
4. Sedimentation:
The coagulated water is then led into the sedimentation tanks where it
is detained for periods varying from 2 to 6 hours when the flocculent
precipitate together with impurities and bacteria settle down in the
tank.
5. Filtration:
The partly clarified water is now subjected to rapid sand filtration.
Filtration
As the filtration proceeds, the suspended impurities and bacteria
clog the filters.
The filters soon become dirty and begin to lose their efficiency.
When the “loss of head” approaches 7–8 feet, filtration is stopped
and the filters are subjected to a washing process known as “back
washing.
Back washing
Rapid sand filters needs frequent washing daily or weekly,
depending upon the loss of head.
Washing is accomplished by reversing the flow of water through
the sand bed, which is called back washing.
Back washing dislodges the impurities and cleans the sand bed.
Compressed air is used as part of the back washing process.
Advantages
The advantages of a rapid sand filters over the slow sand filters are:
1. Rapid sand filter can deal with raw water directly.
2. The filter bed occupies less space.
3. Filtration is rapid—40 to 50 times that of slow sand filters.
4. Washing of the filter is easy.
5. There is more flexibility in operation.
3. Chlorination
Chlorination is one of the greatest advances in water purification.
1. Chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria, but it has no effect on spores and
certain viruses except in high doses.
2. It oxidizes iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide,
3. It destroys some taste and odour producing constituents,
4. It controls algae and slime organisms, and aids coagulation
Action of chlorine;
When chlorine is added to water, there is formation of hydrochloric and
hydrochlorous acids.
The hydrochloric acid is neutralized by the alkalinity of the water. The
hypochlorous acid ionizes to form hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions.
Method of chlorination
For disinfecting large bodies of water, chlorine is applied either as,
1. Chlorine gas
2. Chloramine
3. Perchloron
Chlorine gas is the first choice, because it is cheap, quick in action, efficient and
easy to apply. Since chlorine gas is an irritant to the eyes and poisonous, a
special equipment known as “chlorinating equipment” is required to apply
chlorine gas to the water supplies.
Chloramines;
Loose compounds of chlorine and ammonia. They have less tendency to
produce chlorinous taste and give more persistent type of residual chlorine. The
greatest drawback of chloramine is that they have a slower action than chlorine
and, therefore, they are not being used to any great extent in water treatment
Perchloron or high test hypochlorite (HTH) is a calcium compound which carries
60–70% of available chlorine.
Solutions prepared from HTH are also used for water disinfection.
